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GASOLINE 

AND 

HOW  TO  USE  IT 


Written    and    Compiled   by 

G  A.  BURRELL 

Formerly  of 

BUREAU  OF  MINES  OF  UNITED  STATES 
GOVERNMENT 

For 


OIL  STATISTICAL  SOCIETY,  Inc. 

Boston,    Mass. 
Publishers 


BOSTON  COLLEGE  LIBRARY" 
CHESTNUT  HILL,  M 


Copyright  1916 

By  Oil  Statistical  Society,  Inc. 

Boston,  Mass. 


k 


ft 


All  Rights  Reserved 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword        ......  7 

Precautions  in  Handling  Gasoline          .  9 
Mixtures  of  Gasoline  Vapor  and  Air       .  12 
Inflammability  of  Gasoline  and  Gaso- 
line Vapor          .          .          .          .          .  13 

Explosive  Mixtures  of  Gasoline  Vapor 

and  Air      ......  14 

Conversion  of  Gasoline  into  Vapor         .  15 

Extinguishing  Gasoline  Fires         .          .  17 

Air-Gas  Machines  .          .          .          .          .  19 

Burns  from  Gasoline  and  Their  Treat- 
ment          ......  19 

Detecting    Gasoline   Vapor    in   Air    by 

x\pparatus           .          .          .          .          .  22 

History  of  Motor  Vehicle  in  the  United 

States        ......  25 

Internal  Combustion  Engine           .          .  26 

Types  of  Carburetors  and  Their  Actions  30 

Adjusting  Carburetor    ....  36 

Diagnosing  Carburetor           ...  38 

Smoke  Tests  for  Air  Leaks     ...  39 
Poisonous  Exhaust  Gases  from  Gasoline 

Engines      ......  41 

The  Art  of  Driving  Automobiles   .          .  47 

Automobile  Pointers      .          .          .          .  60 

Engine  Troubles    .          .          .          .          .  63 


CONTENTS— Co  ntinued 


Non-Freezing  Solutions 
Use  of  Farm  Tractors    . 
Gasoline  in  Warfare 
Aircraft  in  Warfare 
Lubricating  Oils  for  Motors 
Lubricating  Pointers 
Gasoline  as  a  Cleaning  Fluid 
Gasoline    in    the    Paint    and    Rubber 

Industries  .... 

Benzine  in  the  Rubber  Industry    . 
History  of  Petroleum    . 
Classification  of  Oil  Fields  . 
Statistics    Regarding    Petroleum    Pro 

duction      ..... 
Composition  of  Petroleum 
Early  History  of  Gasoline    . 
Present  Shortage  of  Gasoline 
Production  and  Exportation  of  Gaso 

line  .  .  . 

Refining  Crude  Oil 
Testing  Gasoline  .... 
Determining  the  Gravity  of  Gasoline 
Fractionation  Analysis  of  Gasoline 
Fractionation  Analysis  of  Kerosene 
"Cracking"  Processes   . 
Motor  Spirits         .... 


CONTENTS— Conti 


The    "Rittman"    Process    of    Crackinc 

Petroleum  .... 

Cracking  Oil  with  Aluminum  Chloride 

"Casinghead"  Gasoline 

Gasoline  Plant,  Compressor  Type 

Gasoline  Plant,  Absorption  Methods 

Gasoline  from  Shale 

Natural  Gas  from  Flow  Tanks 

Substitutes  for  Gasoline 

Benzol  versus  Gasoline 

Use  of  Alcohol       .... 

Sources  of  Alcohol 

Mixtures  of  Benzol  and  Alcohol  . 

Naphthalene  as  Motor  Fuel 

Fake  Substitutes  for  Gasoline 

Fundamental  Physical  Laws  and  Defini 

tions  ..... 

Useful  Tables         .... 
Weights  and  Measures  . 
Explanation  of  Metric  System 
Various  Tables       ..... 
Electrical  Facts    .... 
Horsepower  ..... 
Boiler  and  Steam  Facts 
Nomenclature  Adopted  by  the  Society 

of  Automobile  Engineers 


165 

108 
170 
175 

176 
181 
183 
185 
188 
190 
194 
196 
198 
200 

203 
207 
213 
215 
220 
233 
236 
238 

239 


FOREWORD 

Intended  for  the  Reader 

The  annual  consumption  of  gasoline  has  reached 
the  total  of  1,500,000,000  gallons.  Of  the  millions 
who  use  this  liquid,  probably  ninety  per  cent  have 
not  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  its  real  nature  and 
practical  possibilities  as  a  power,  on  the  one  hand 
to  destroy  man  and  the  works  of  man,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  aid  and  assist  him.  The  utilization 
of  gasoline  is  largely  a  matter  of  intelligent  under- 
standing of  what  the  substance  is  and  what  it 
can  do  if  the  opportunity  is  provided. 

It  is  the  aim  of  this  book: 

(1)  To  cut  off  the  source  of  supply  of  the  daily 
papers'  lurid  tales  of  burning  automobiles,  flaming 
motor  boats,  with  whole  families  consumed,  fearful 
conflagrations  in  cleansing  establishments,  garages 
and  dwellings  —  all  because  not  of  gasoline,  but 
ignorance  of  and  carelessness  with  gasoline; 

(2)  To  assist  the  motorist  in  getting  the  full 
measure  of  power  from  the  gasoline  for  which  he 
pays;  and,  incidentally,  but  thoroughly  and  with 
care,  to  give  him  pointers  as  to  the  running  and 
lubrication  of  his  automobile; 

(3)  To   give  to   those  who  are  using  or  may 


consider  using  gasoline  in  working  the  farm,  or  in 
any  commercial  enterprise,  advice  and  pointers, 
both  as  to  how  to  use  gasoline  itself  and  in  what 
nature  of  machine  to  use  it; 

(4)  To  give  to  the  student  and  the  professional 
oil  man  the  whole  story  of  gasoline  and  petroleum — 
historically,  scientifically  and  practically; 

(5)  To  give  to  anybody  who  uses  gasoline,  to  the 
extent  of  cleansing  a  pair  of  gloves,  useful  in- 
formation. 

Our  guarantee  of  good  faith  is  the  name  and 
merit  of  the  author  of  this  work,  George  A.  Burrell, 
a  consulting  chemist  in  private  practice,  and  until 
the  15th  day  of  October,  1916,  in  charge  of  the 
Research  Laboratory  for  Gas  Investigations,  Bureau 
of  Mines  of  the  United  States  Government. 

Oil  Statistical  Society,  Inc., 

Publishers. 


PRECAUTIONS  IN  HANDLING  GASOLINE 

Every  user  of  gasoline  should  appreciate  that  he 
is  dealing  with  a  dangerous,  inflammable  substance, 
and  that  at  all  times  he  should  exercise  the  greatest 
care  in  its  use. 

Don't  spill  gasoline. 

Don't  fill  the  tank  of  a  liquid  fuel  stove  full. 
Don't  use  a  liquid  fuel  stove  that  leaks. 
Don't  fill  a  gasoline  stove  in  a  closed  room.     Have  plenty 
of  ventilation  to  carry  the  vapor  out  of  the  room. 

Don't  use  gasoline  or  naphtha  for  washing  the  hands. 

In  establishments  where  benzine,  gasoline,  naph- 
tha and  other  inflammable  liquids  are  used,  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  liquids  are  handled 
in  an  approved  manner.  No  open  light  or  flame  of 
any  kind,  nor  any  machine,  or  belt  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a  spark  should  be  allowed  in  the  room  where 
the  gasoline  is  being  used.  All  shafting  and  machines 
with  belts,  that  are  liable  to  cause  a  static  electric- 
spark,  should  be  well  grounded. 

Only  incandescent  electric  lights  should  be  used, 
and  these  should  be  provided  with  guards  to  prevent 
their  being  smashed.  All  electric  switches,  fuses,  etc. , 
should  be  outside  of  the  room.  Danger  signs  should 
be  posted  on  all  doors  opening  into  the  room,  warning 
against  the  carrying  of  open  lights  of  any  kind  outside. 

9 


10 GASOLINE 

When  large  quantities  of  gasoline  are  used,  the 
main  supply  should  be  stored  in  a  metal  tank  buried 
under  ground,  and  a  safe  distance  from  buildings. 
The  working  supply  should  be  pumped  into  the 
buildings  as  needed.  When  it  is  not  possible  to  use 
a  pump  and  a  buried  tank,  the  main  supply  should  be 
stored  outside  and  well  away  from  other  buildings, 
under  lock  and  key.  Only  small  quantities  should 
be  taken  into  the  buildings,  closed  metal  cans, 
preferably  safety  cans,  being  used  as  containers. 

When  the  use  of  an  open  can  is  necessary  the 
opening  should  be  as  small  as  possible,  and  a  cover 
should  be  provided.  The  cover  should  be  put  on 
whenever  the  can  is  not  in  use. 

Signs  should  be  posted  prohibiting  an  open  flame 
near  a  pump  or  other  handling  apparatus.  The 
signs  should  explain  the  danger  involved  and  give 
instructions  for  safe  methods  of  operation. 

Empty  gasoline  barrels  should  be  stored  with 
bung  holes  down,  in  safe  places  in  the  open  air. 

Rooms  in  which  explosive  or  dangerous  gases  or 
vapors  are  used  or  generated  should  be  safely  en- 
closed, and  should  be  provided  with  an  improved 
system  of  ventilation. 

Gasoline  vapor  is  heavier  than  air,  and  a  suction 
fan    should    be    used   to   insure  proper   ventilation. 


GASOLINE  11 


Joints  in  pipes,  tanks,  conveyors,  etc.,  used  for 
storage  of  gasoline,  should  be  kept  tight.  Before 
work  is  done  on  vessels,  pipes,  etc.,  sufficient  time 
should  be  given  to  allow  gas  to  escape. 

Special  care  should  be  exercised  before  work 
requiring  the  use  of  heat  or  flame  is  done.  iVpparat  us 
that  has  contained  explosive  gas  should  be  filled  with 
water  or  steam  to  force  out  the  gas. 

Many  fires  originate  from  cleaning  silks  with 
gasoline;  the  violent  rubbing  of  the  silk  generating 
static  electricity,  which  produces  a  spark  that  ignites 
the  vapor. 

Jobbing  tailors  sometimes  cause  fires  by  using 
gasoline  in  an  open  vessel,  and  smoking  a  cigar  or 
cigarette  at  the  same  time. 

A  dangerous  practice,  common  in  many  garages, 
is  the  cleaning  of  automobile  parts  with  gasoline 
from  an  open  can.  Employees  find  it  easy  to  clean 
grease  and  oil  from  the  motor,  and  other  parts,  with 
a  brush  saturated  with  gasoline,  and  the  gasoline  is 
readily  ignited  by  a  spark. 

There  follows  a  few  of  the  many  causes  that  have 
started  gasoline  fires: 


Careless  striking  of  a  match. 
Match  on  floor  stepped  on. 
Overheated  shaft  bearing. 


12 GASOLINE 

Spark  from  turning  on  electric  Light. 

Rubbing  two  pieces  of  silk  together. 

Opening  door  leading  into  room  where  lamp  was  burning. 

Opening  a  stove  door. 

Opening  door  leading  to  locker  room. 

Gas  light  in  room. 

MIXTURES  OF  GASOLINE  VAPOR  AND  AIR 

Gasoline  vapor  mixes  with  air  in  the  same  manner 
that  water  vapor  does.  Atmospheric  air,  for  in- 
stance, always  contains  water  vapor.  In  any  par- 
ticular temperature  a  definite  proportion  of  water 
vapor  will  be  found  in  the  atmosphere  if  it  has 
become  completely  saturated,  a  condition  that  sel- 
dom exists.  Usually,  a  limited  supply  of  water  has 
been  taken  up  by  the  air,  and  the  atmosphere  is 
spoken  of  as  having  a  certain  relative  humidity, 
meaning  that  the  saturation  is  incomplete  or  that 
more  water  vapor  could  exist  in  the  air  were  a  source 
of  moisture  available.  In  a  similar  maimer  gasoline 
vapor  mixes  with  air.  The  amount  of  vapor  carried 
will  depend  on  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  the 
readiness  with  which  the  vapor  can  be  obtained. 

If  gasoline  is  exposed  to  the  air  of  a  room,  and 
for  a  long  enough  time,  the  air  will  contain  at  a  cer- 
tain   temperature    a    fixed    proportion    of    gasoline 


GASOLINE  13 


vapor,  differing  for  different  grades  of  gasoline,  that 

cannot  be  exceeded. 

Proportions  of  different  grades  of  gasoline  vapor 
that  air  will  carry  at  a  temperature  of  63.5°  F. 

Proportion  of  Gasoline 

Grade  of  Gasoline  Vapor  (per  cent) 

Cleaner's  Naphtha  5.0 

61°  B.  Gasoline  11.0 

09°  B.  Gasoline  15.0 

73°  B.  Gasoline  28.0 

It  will  be  noticed  that  air  will  hold  almost  six 
times  as  much  vapor  from  the  lighter  gasoline  as 
from  the  heavier  cleaner's  naphtha.  If  the  lighter 
and  the  better  grades  of  gasoline  are  heated,  their 
vapors,  when  a  light  is  applied,  also  flash  and  burn  at 
lower  temperatures  than  do  the  heavier  grades. 
This  difference  does  not  mean  that  some  gasoline  is 
a  dangerous  inflammable  liquid  and  some  is  not. 
All  grades  are  classed  as  highly  inflammable  and 
dangerous   liquids. 

INFLAMMABILITY  OF  GASOLINE  AND  OF 
GASOLINE  VAPOR 

If  one  takes  the  cover  off  of  a  full  pail  of  tightly 
closed  gasoline,  and  applies  a  match  to  the  surface 


14  GASOLINE 


the  gasoline  will  flare  up  and  burn  as  Jong  as  the 
gasoline  lasts.  On  the  other  hand,  if  one  puts  a 
few  drops  of  gasoline  in  a  small,  tightly-inclosed 
pail,  waits  a  few  minutes,  and  then  introduces  a 
flame  or  an  electric  spark,  a  violent  explosion  will 
most  likely  result.  In  the  first  case  the  vapor 
burns  as  fast  as  it  comes  from  the  gasoline  and 
mixes  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  In  the  second 
case  the  gasoline  vaporizes  in  the  pail  and  mixes 
uniformly  with  the  air  therein  to  form  an  explosive 
mixture,  and  upon  ignition  explodes.  Consequently, 
when  one  hears  of  a  disastrous  gasoline  explosion, 
one  may  be  sure  that  the  explosion  resulted  from 
the  mixing  of  the  vapor  from  the  gasoline  with  air 
in  proportions  necessary  to  form  an  explosive  mix- 
ture. 

If  a  lighted  match  could  be  applied  to  pure 
gasoline  vapor  in  the  absence  of  air,  no  fire  or  ex- 
plosion could  take  place.  Gasoline  liquid  or  vapor, 
like  any  other  combustible  material,  needs  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  in  order  to  burn. 

EXPLOSIVE  RANGE  OF  MIXTURES  OF 
GASOLINE  VAPOR  AND  AIR 

The  amount  of  air  required  to  be  mixed   with 


GASOLINE  15 


gasoline  vapor  in  order  to  produce  an  explosive 
mixture  has  been  carefully  determined.  In  one 
hundred  parts  by  volume  of  air  and  gasoline,  an 
explosion  will  not  take  place  if  there  is  less  than 
about  1.5  parts  of  gasoline  vapor,  or  more  than 
about  six  parts.*  In  other  words,  the  explosive 
range  is  between  1.5  and  six  per  cent  gasoline  vapor. 
Flashes  of  flame  will  appear  in  mixtures  containing 
considerably  smaller  and  larger  proportions  of  vapor 
and  considerable  pressure  will  be  developed,  but 
complete  propagation  of  flame  through  the  mixture 
will  not  take  place.  This  means,  for  instance,  that 
gasoline  vapor  must  be  mixed  with  about  seventeen 
to  forty  times  its  volume  of  air  for  the  explosion 
to  take  place  in  the  gasoline  engine. 

CONVERSION  OF  GASOLINE   INTO  VAPOR 

One  gallon  of  gasoline  when  entirely  changed 
into  gasoline  vapor  produces  about  thirty-two  cubic 
feet  of  vapor.  These  thirty-two  cubic  feet  of  vapor 
could  render  explosive  about  2,100  cubic  feet  of  air, 
or  the  amount  of  air  contained  in  room  measuring 
twenty-one  feet   by   ten  feet   square.     But  in  the 

*Burrell,  G.  A.  and  Boyd,  H.  T.  "Inflammability  of  Mixtures 
of  Gasoline  Vapcr  and  Air."  Technical  Paper  115,  Bureau 
of  Mines. 


16  GASOLINE 


actual  use  of  gasoline  this  is  an  ideal  condition  thai 
could  not  be  produced.  An  assumed  case  may  be 
that  of  a  person  filling  an  open  pail  from  a  larger 
tank,  or  using  gasoline  for  cleaning.  When  the 
pail  is  first  filled  with  gasoline,  a  small  amount  of 
pure  gasoline  vapor  forms  over  the  surface  of  the 
gasoline.  Just  above  this  layer  of  pure  gasoline 
vapor  is  a  mixture  of  vapor  and  air;  at  some  point 
there  will  be  an  explosive  proportion,  and  farther 
away  from  the  pail  there  will  be  a  small  proportion 
of  vapor,  and,  finally,  still  farther  away  no  vapor 
at  all,  but  pure  air.  However,  all  the  time  the  user 
of  gasoline  is  at  work,  the  vapor  keeps  forming  from 
both  the  gasoline  in  the  pail  and  that  applied  to  the 
object  being  cleaned,  rendering  more  and  more  air 
inflammable  or  explosive  until  finally  there  will 
exist  a  dangerous  atmosphere  that  may  completely 
surround  him,  so  that  a  chance  ignition  will  envelop 
him  in  flames,  and  perhaps  cause  great  damage  to 
property.  Ignition  of  the  gasoline  vapor  may  take 
place  even  some  distance  from  the  gasoline  in  a 
room  adjoining  the  room  in  which -the  person  works. 
As  the  gasoline  evaporates,  and  more  and  more 
vapor  is  given  off,  it  mixes  with  air  farther  and 
farther  from  the  gasoline;  and  if  the  evaporation 
lasts  long  enough,  may  travel  to  an  adjoining  room. 


G  A  S  0  L  I  X  E 17 

where   it    may   be   ignited.     On    ignition,    a   sharp 

flash  will  travel  back  through  the  adjoining  room 
to  the  room  where  the  gasoline  is. 

EXTINGUISHING  GASOLINE  FIRES 

The  best  method  of  extinguishing  a  burning 
liquid  is  to  form  a  blanket  of  inert  gas  or  solid 
material  over  the  burning  liquid  and  cut  off  the 
air  (oxygen)  supply. 

Water  may  be  used  for  extinguishing  burning 
liquids,  such  as  denatured  alcohol,  wood  alcohol 
and  acetone,  that  are  mixable  with  it.  But  if  gaso- 
line, which  does  not  mix  with  water,  catches  fire, 
the  application  of  water  produces  little  or  no  effect, 
except  to  spread  the  burning  liquid  and  thus  scatter 
the  fire  over  a  larger  area. 

Of  materials  used  to  form  a  blanket  of  inert  gas 
or  solid  material  over  the  fire,  thus  cutting  off  the 
oxygen  supply,  several  are  in  common  use.  These 
include  sawdust,  sand,  carbon,  tetrachloride,  and 
the  so-called  foam  or  frothy  mixtures. 

The  efficiency  of  sawdust  is  due  to  its  floating 
for  a  time  on  the  liquid  and  excluding  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  Sawdust  itself  does  not  catch  fire  easily 
and  when  it  does  ignite,  burns  without  flame.  It 
may  be  well  handled  for  extinguishing  small  fires, 


18  GASOLINE 


when  just  started,  by  means  of  long-handled  wooden 
shovels. 

Sand  probably  serves  about  as  well  as  sawdust 
for  extinguishing  fires  on  the  ground,  but  it  is 
heavier  and  more  awkward  to  handle.  When 
thrown  on  a  burning  tank  it  sinks,  whereas  sawdust 
floats. 

Carbon  tetrachloride,  the  basis  of  various  chemi- 
cal fire  extinguishers,  if  thrown  on  a  fire  forms  a 
heavy  non-inflammable  vapor  over  the  liquid,  and 
readily  mixes  with  gasoline.  The  vapor  is  about 
five  times  as  heavy  as  air.  Much  of  the  carbon 
tetrachloride  contains  impurities  that  give  it  a 
bad  odor,  but  when  pure  its  specific  gravity  is  1.632 
at  32°  F.  (air  =  1).  When  thrown  on  a  fire,  it  pro- 
duces black  smoke,  the  hue  of  which  is  caused  by 
unconsumed  particles  of  carbon.  Pungent  gases 
are  also  produced,  probably  due  to  hydrochloric- 
acid  gas  and  small  volumes  of  chlorine  gas.  Although 
the  fumes  are  pungent,  brief  exposure  to  them  does 
not  cause  permanent  injury. 

The  efficacy  of  carbon  tetrachloride  depends 
largely  on  the  skill  of  the  user.  If  liquid  in  a  tank 
is  on  fire,  the  height  of  the  liquid  is  important. 
When  the  liquid  is  low,  the  sides  of  the  tank  form 
a  wall  which  retains  the  vapor;  but  when  a  tank 


GASOLINE  10 


is    nearly    full    of   gasoline,    only    the   most    skilled 
operator  can  extinguish  the  flame  or  fire. 

AIR-GAS  MACHINES 

By  Air-Gas  is  meant  an  inflammable  mixture 
of  air  and  a  volatile  liquid  like  gasoline.  Air-gas 
machines  consist  of  arrangements  for  passing  air 
over  a  large  surface  of  gasoline.  The  gasoline  may 
be  contained  in  a  number  of  shallow  trays  or  in 
spongy  or  porous  materials.  Occasionally,  the  air 
is  caused  to  bubble  through  the  liquid.  After  be- 
coming saturated  with  the  gasoline,  the  mixture 
of  gasoline  vapor  and  air  is  forced  through  pipes 
for  consumption  in  houses  and  other  buildings. 
At  some  places  small  villages  are  illuminated  with 
air-gas.  In  all  cases  it  must  be  used  as  it  is  made, 
for  the  gasoline  vapor  condenses  out  on  storage, 
and  also  during  passage  through  long  pipes. 

The  heating  value  at  ordinary  temperature  is 
from  400  to  500  B.  T.  U.  per  cubic  foot, 

BURNS   FROM  GASOLINE 

Burns  are  divided  into  three  classes  according 
to  depth.  A  first-degree  burn  is  simply  a  scorching 
or  reddening  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  epidermis 


20  GASOLINE 


(skin).  A  second-degree  burn  involves  and  de- 
stroys the  entire  thickness  of  the  skin.  A  third- 
degree  burn  destroys  not  only  the  skin  but  also 
the  tissue  beneath,  sometimes  entirely  to  the  bone. 

The  symptoms  of  a  first-degree  burn  are:  severe 
burning  pain,  reddening  of  the  skin,  formation  of 
blisters;  in  a  second-degree  burn,  destruction  of 
the  skin;  in  a  third-degree  burn,  destruction  of  the 
skin  and  some  of  the  tissue  beneath.  In  severe 
burns  shock  is  present. 

In  treating  a  burn,  first  carefully  remove  the 
clothing  from  the  burned  part.  Exclude  the  air 
as  quickly  as  possible  from  the  burned  surface  with 
some  clean  covering. 

There  are  a  number  of  good  coverings  for  burns; 
the  one  most  generally  used  by  first-aid  men  is 
picric-acid  gauze.  This  gauze  is  ordinarily  sterile 
gauze  which  has  been  saturated  with  a  one-per-cent 
solution  of  picric  acid  (one-half  teaspoonful  of  picric 
acid  to  one  pint  of  water).  It  has  this  advantage: 
it  is  clean  and  ready  to  use. 

Moisten  the  picric-acid  gauze  with  clean  water 
and  put  it  over  the  burned  surface.  Over  the  gauze 
place  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton,  then  apply  a 
bandage  to  hold  in  place. 

Carron  oil,  which  is  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 


GASOLINE 21 

limewaterand  linseed  oil,  has  been  used  as  a  dressing 
for  burns,  but  its  use  is  not  recommended.  The 
best  dressing  is  picric-acid  gauze. 

Vaseline,  sweet  oil,  olive  oil  and  balsam  oil  are 
all  good  dressings.  If  nothing  better  is  at  hand, 
dissolve  some  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  sterilized  water. 
Gauze  wrung  out  of  this  and  spread  over  the  burn 
will  give  relief. 

Severe  burns  are  accompanied  by  shock,  and 
always  treat  a  burned  patient  for  shock  as  well  as 
for  burns. 

Shock  is  a  sudden  depression  of  the  vital  powers 
arising  from  an  injury  or  a  profound  emotion  acting 
on  the  nerve  centers,  and  inducing  exhaustion.  The 
symptoms  are  abnormal  temperature,  an  irregular, 
weak  and  rapid  pulse;  a  cold,  clammy,  pale  and 
profusely  perspiring  skin;  irregular  breathing;  the 
person  affected  usually  remains  conscious  and  will 
answer  when  spoken  to;  but  is  stupid  and  indiffer- 
ent, and  lies  with  partly-closed  lids.  Sometimes 
there  is  concealed  hemorrhage. 

In  treating  patients  for  shock,  lower  the  patient's 
head,  wrap  him  in  warm  blankets  and  surround 
him  with  heat-giving  objects.  Give  an  ordinary 
stimulant,  as  black  coffee,  to  be  sipped  as  hot  as 
it  can  be  borne;   half-teaspoonful  doses  of  aromatic 


22  GASOLINE 


spirits  of  ammonia  may  be  given  every  twenty  or 
thirty  minutes.  Small  doses  of  whiskey  or  brandy 
may  be  given,  provided  that  there  is  no  hemorrhage. 
One  or  two  teaspoonfuls  every  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  will  help  to  tide  the  patient  over  until  the 
doctor  arrives.  Inhalation  of  oxygen  is  often  of 
much  service;  artificial  respiration  may  be  necessary 
in  some  cases.  Hot  applications  over  the  heart 
and  spine  should  be  used  if  practicable.  Always 
hurry  the  doctor. 

APPARATUS    FOR    DETECTING    GASOLINE 
VAPOR  IN  AIR 

A  gas  detector  has  been  developed  by  the  author 
of  this  book  (G.  A.  Burrell,  Journal  of  Industry  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  Vol.  8,  1916,  Page  365)  for 
detecting  gasoline  vapor  in  air.  It  is  useful  for 
determining  small  or  dangerous  percentage  of  gaso- 
line vapor  in  garages,  dry-cleaning  establishments, 
ships  where  oil  or  gasoline  may  be  stored,  engine 
rooms  where  gasoline  is  used,  and,  in  fact,  any  place 
where  gasoline  vapor  may  accumulate  and  menace 
the  safety  of  people  and  buildings.  It  is  sold  by 
the  Mine  Safety  Supply  Company  of  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

A  diagram  is  shown.  The  instrument  may 
be      considered     to     be     a  U-tube,    of    which  the 


24 GASOLINE 

limbs  (S)  and  (N)  are  two  branches.  Communica- 
tion is  made  between  the  two  limbs  at  a  point  desig- 
nated by  the  arrow. 

To  start  a  series  of  determinations  the  brass 
cap  (A)  is  removed  and  water  is  poured  into  (F) 
until  it  rests  in  the  tube  (N)  at  the  point  (G),  the 
zero  point  of  the  scale.  The  water  will  then  seek 
the  level  (F)  in  the  tube  (S). 

To  make  a  determination  of  combustible  gas  in 
air,  say  of  gasoline  vapor  in  air,  one  blows  in  the 
tube  (H)  by  means  of  a  rubber  tube  (not  shown), 
thereby  depressing  the  water  in  (M)  to  some  point 
and  filling  the  combustion  space  above  (F)  with 
water.  One  can  tell  when  this  combustion 
space  is  filled  with  water  by  hearing  a  slight  click 
when  the  water  strikes  the  valve  (D).  Next,  the 
instrument  is  raised  to  the  place  where  the  sample 
is  to  be  collected  and  the  water  allowed  to  seek  the 
former  levels  at  (F)  and  (G).  The  water  in  falling 
to  (F)  sucks  in  a  sample  of  the  air  to  be  tested. 
Next  the  valve  (D)  is  closed  and  the  platinum  wire 
in  (E)  electrically  heated.  The  gasoline  in  the  com- 
bustion chamber  burns  to  carbon  dioxide  and  water, 
and  the  contraction  in  volume  of  the  sample  occurs 
corresponding  to  the  amount  of  gasoline  originally 
present  in  the  sample.     At  the  end  of  one  and  one- 


GASOLINE 25 

half  minutes  the  electric  current  is  turned  off  and 
the  instrument  shaken  to  cool  the  gases  in  the  com- 
bustion space  and  bring  them  to  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  the  gases  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  test. 

The  water  in  the  combustion  space  will  then  rise 
to  take  the  place  of  the  burned-out  gas  and  fall  a 
corresponding  distance  in  the  glass  tube  (N),  i.e., 
fall  to  a  point  on  the  graduated  scale  that  will  show 
the  per  cent  of  gasoline  originally  in  the  sample. 
A  previous  calibration,  once  and  for  all  time,  fixes 
the  proper  graduations  on  this  scale.  The  latter 
carries  four  graduation  columns,  one  for  methane 
and  natural  gas,  one  for  hydrogen,  one  for  gasoline 
vapor  and  one  for  coal  gas. 

The  electrical  energy  for  heating  the  platinum 
wire  is  derived  from  a  storage  battery.  A  test 
requires  two  minutes. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  MOTOR  VEHICLE  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

The  development  of  motoring  and  of  the  motor 
industry  in  the  Lmited  States  has  been  very  rapid. 
At  first,  steam  cars  were  favored  to  a  large  extent, 
but  the  gasoline  engine  became  refined  so  rapidly 
as  regards  silentness  and  smoothness  of  operation 
and  simplicity  and  suitability  that  it  became  very 


26  GASOLINE 


popular  and  far  outstripped  the  steam  engine  as  a 
propellant  for  motor  vehicles. 

George  B.  Selden,  then  living  in  Rochester, 
New  York,  applied  in  1879  for  patent  on  a  gas- 
compression  engine  for  propelling  road  vehicles. 
The  patent  was  granted  to  him  on  November  5, 
1895,  and  he  'claimed  that  any  vehicle  propelled 
by  an  internal  combustion  engine,  manufactured 
since  that  time,  was  an  infringement  on  his  patents. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  year  1910,  there  were 
seventy-one  manufacturers  who  admitted  the  valid- 
ity of  his  claim,  and  paid  a  license  fee  of  one  and  a 
half  per  cent  of  the  catalogue  price  of  their  cars  to 
the  association  of  licensed  automobile  manufac- 
turers who  agreed  to  recognize  the  Selden  claim. 
In  the  year  1911  this  claim  was  defeated  by  Henry 
Ford  and  others.  In  the  year  1899  there  were  about 
six  hundred  motor  cars  in  the  United  States.  Now 
there  are  fully  two  and  one-quarter  million. 

THE  INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINE 

Gottlieb  Daimler's  (England)  invention  of  the 
high-speed  internal  combustion  engine  in  1885  was 
the  first  step  toward  the  production  of  the  modern 
self-propelled  road  vehicle,  the  next  step  being  the 
recognition  in  1887  of  the  advantages  of  Daimler's 


BOSTON  COLLEGE  LIBR/^ 
CBE8TNUT  B 


G  A  S  O  L  I  X  E 27 

system  by  M.  Levassor,  and  his  application  of  that 
system  to  the  propulsion  of  a  carriage. 

This  engine  marked  a  great  advance  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  source  of  motor  power,  for  its  efficiency 
was  large  as  compared  to  its  total  weight;  whilst 
the  simplicity  of  its  fuel  system  brought  it  within 
the  scope  of  the  person  of  average  mechanical  in- 
stincts and  intelligence,  for,  even  in  its  early  days, 
the  interna]  combustion  engine  did  not  demand  that 
its  user  should  possess  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
engineering. 

Levassor  placed  the  engine  in  front,  the  axis  of 
the  crankshaft  being  parallel  with  the  side  members 
of  the  frame  of  the  vehicle.  The  drive  was  taken 
through  a  clutch  to  a  set  of  reduction  gears  and 
thence  to  a  differential  gear  on  a  countershaft,  from 
which  the  road  wheels  were  driven  by  chains.  With 
all  the  modifications  of  details,  the  combination 
of  clutch,  gear-box  and  transmission  remains  un- 
altered, so  that  to  France,  in  the  person  of  M. 
Levassor,  must  be  given  the  honor  of  having  led 
in  the  development  of  the  motor  car. 

The  reason  for  the  use  of  the  words  "internal 
combustion  engine"  is  that  the  fuel,  in  the  case  of 
the  gasoline  engine,  is  burned  (or  fired)  inside  the 
working  cylinder;    whereas  it  is  burned  externally 


28  G  A  S  O  L  I  X  E 


in  the  case  of  a  steam  engine,  i.e.,  underneath  the 
boiler  or  generator.  The  efficiency  of  the  internal 
combustion  engine  is  about  three  times  as  great  as 
the  steam  engine. 

The  essential  parts  of  any  internal  combustion 
system  are:  the  carburetor,  the  engine,  the  clutch, 
the  radiator,  the  change-speed  gears  and  the  final 
transmission.  The  carburetor  is  a  vessel  in  which 
the  liquid  fuel  is  converted  into  gas  or  vapor.  The 
production  of  this  gas  is  automatic  and  calls  for 
little  attention  from  the  driver. 

A  smart  turn  of  the  cranking  handle  is  enough 
to  set  piston  and  crankshaft  in  motion,  so  that  an 
initial  supply  of  the  combustible  mixture  may  reach 
one  of  the  cylinders.  This  first  charge  of  gas  is 
ignited  by  a  properly-regulated  electric  spark,  and 
there  is  then  little  for  the  driver  to  do  as  regards 
power,  except  to  move  a  convenient  lever  which 
opens  or  closes  a  throttle  valve  between  the  cylinders 
and  the  carburetor,  thus  letting  more  or  less  gas 
into  the  engine. 

Cylinders  get  very  hot  unless  they  are  cooled, 
hence,  they  have  to  be  surrounded  with  water  jackets 
through  which  water  is  forced.  A  fan,  which  is 
driven  from  the  crankshaft  of  the  engine,  aids  in 
the  cooling  by  forcing  air  around  and  through  the 


GASOLINE 29 

radiator  system  through  which  the  water  circu- 
lates. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  driver  should  have 
a  convenient  means  of  quickly  connecting  the  engine 
to  the  driving  mechanism  of  the  car,  and  to  do  this 
without  jars  or  shocks.  To  do  this,  a  multiple  disc 
clutch  or  leather-faced,  cone-shaped  circular  member 
is  provided  that  can  be  engaged  with  a  similar 
member  on  the  engine  flywheel  by  the  driver  merely 
pressing  his  foot  on  a  pedal.  This  can  be  done 
gradually,  so  that  a  car  can  be  easily  and  gently 
set  in  motion.  An  internal  combustion  engine  can- 
not develop  power  unless  the  crankshaft  can  rotate 
at  a  relatively  high  number  of  revolutions.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  introduce  a  system  of  levers 
between  the  engine  and  the  road  wheels  in  order 
to  permit  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  crank- 
shaft to  be  maintained  when  hill  climbing,  or  when 
the  vehicle  is  carrying  a  heavy  load;  and  the  com- 
mon practice  is  to  introduce  three  or  four  sets  of 
toothed  wheels,  any  pair  of  which  can  be  put  into 
engagement  by  the  movement  of  a  single  lever, 
which  lever  is  placed  near  the  driver's  right  hand 
as  a  rule. 

The  great  distinction  from  a  horse-drawn  vehicle 
is  that  there  must  be  both  a  mechanical  connection 


30  GASOLINE 


and  differential  connection  between  the  two  back 
wheels.  The  wheels  on  horse  vehicles  revolve 
loosely  on  the  axle  and  one  can  overrun  the  other 
on  curves,  but  a  special  device,  known  as  the  differ- 
ential gear,  must  be  introduced  into  all  motor  vehicles 
between  the  change-speed  gears  and  the  driven- 
road  wheels.  Such  a  device  permits  one  of  two 
driving  wheels  to  be  turned  around  at  a  quicker 
speed  than  the  other.  The  wheel  turning  fastest  is 
not  driven  in  such  a  case. 

TYPES  OF 
CARBURETORS  AND  THEIR  ACTIONS 

Since  the  carburetor  of  the  modern  automobile 
plays  a  very  important  part  in  the  conversion  of 
liquid  gasoline  into  vapor,  some  detailed  informa- 
tion regarding  its  construction  and  operation  is 
given  in  this  publication. 

Old  patterns  of  carburetors  were  the  simplest 
forms  of  devices  and  consisted  of  three  principal 
types,  the  surface,  wick  and  bubbling  type. 

The  surface  type  consisted  of  a  simple  tank  or 
container  for  the  gasoline.  Air  was  drawn  in  and 
across  the  surface  of  the  gasoline  in  order  that  it 
might  become  saturated  with  the  vapors  constantly 
present  at  that  point.     These  rich  gases  were  drawn 


GASOLINE  31 


into  the  engine  through  a  simple  form  of  mixing 
valve  which  permitted  the  entrance  of  an  auxiliary 
supply  of  air  from  the  outside  of  the  container  to 
dilute  the  rich  gas  and  make  it  a  proper  mixture  to 
insure  energetic  combustion. 

The  wick  form  of  carburetor  is  essentially  the 
same  in  construction  as  the  surface  type,  except 
that  the  mixing  compartment,  through  which  the 
air  flows,  is  separated  from  the  fuel-containing  por- 
tion bymeans  of  a  wall  of  absorbent  material,  such  as 
wicks,  which  feed  the  gasoline  up  into  the  mixing  com- 
partment by  capillary  attraction,  and  by  spreading  it 
over  more  surface  make  it  easier  for  the  air  stream 
passing  over  the  wicking  to  pick  up  gasoline  vapor. 

The  bubbling  type  of  carburetor  differs  from  the 
other  simple  forms  previously  described  in  that  the 
air  enters  at  the  bottom  of  the  device  and  bubbles 
through  the  liquid  to  reach  the  mixing  chamber  from 
which  it  is  drawn  to  the  engine  cylinder. 

Devices  of  the  nature  considered  in  the  three 
above  types  of  carburetors  have  great  defects  that 
would  militate  against  their  general  adoption  at 
the  present  day.  They  are  only  suitable  for  use 
in  conjunction  with  high-grade  gasoline  that  has 
high  evaporating  value.  It  is  doubtful  if  they 
would  give  satisfactory  results  with  the  low-grade 


32  GASOLINE 


fuels  available  to-day.  In  many  cases  these  car- 
buretors were  as  large  as  the  cylinder  of  the  motor 
to  which  they  were  applied. 

The  spraying  form  of  carburetor  was  designed 
to  eliminate  one  of  the  great  disadvantages  present 
with  the  simple  evaporation  types.  As  these  were 
used,  the  fuel  contained  therein  became  heavier, 
because  only  the  lighter  and  more  volatile  constitu- 
ents evaporated.  After  the  motor  had  been  run- 
ning for  sometime,  it  was  necessary  to  drain  -out  the 
residue  and  admit  a  supply  of  fresh  fuel  from  the 
main  container,  because  heavy  matter  left  after 
the  more  volatile  vapors  had  passed  into  the  engine 
could  not  be  vaporized  by  an  air  current  merely 
brushing  over  its  surface  or  passing  through  it.  In 
the  spraying  type  of  carburetor  the  fuel  is  drawn 
into  the  entering  air  stream  through  a  smaller  jet 
or  standpipe  which  causes  it  to  issue  in  the  form  of 
a  spray  that  soon  turns  into  vapor.  With  the 
spraying  principle  every  particle  of  the  fuel  is  used. 
because  the  heavier  portions  are  sprayed  into  the 
air  stream  at  the  same  time  that  the  lighter  con- 
stituents are,  and  as  the  liquid  enters  the  air  stream 
in  a  finely-divided  state  of  mist,  it  is  almost  im- 
mediately vaporized  and  turned  into  an  explosive 
gas. 


GASOLINE  33 


An  important  part  of  a  carburetor  is  a  float  that 
controls  the  level  of  the  gasoline  in  the  standpipe 
or  jet.  This  level  is  so  proportioned  that  the  liquid 
does  not  overflow  the  standpipe,  and  thus  the  fuel 
will  be  sprayed  into  the  mixture  only  when  drawn 
out  of  the  jet  or  nozzle  by  means  of  the  air  stream 
induced  by  engine  suction.  The  level  in  the  spray 
nozzle  is  maintained  by  a  simple  automatic  valve 
mechanism  in  which  a  float  controls  the  admission 
of  fuel  to  the  device. 

Two  important  parts  of  float-feed  carburetors 
are  the  mixing  chamber  and  the  float  chamber. 
The  mixing  chamber  is  that  portion  of  the  carburetor 
in  which  the  spray  nozzle  is  placed  and  through 
which  the  air  stream  passes  before  it  can  reach  the 
inlet  manifold.  The  float  chamber  is  that  part  of 
the  carburetor  to  which  fuel  is  first  admitted  and 
which  serves  as  a  container  for  the  float  which  regu- 
lates the  level  of  fuel  in  the  standpipe.  Whenever 
the  fuel  level  falls,  the  float  which  is  supported  by 
the  liquid  falls  and  opens  a  valve  which  permits 
more  of  the  liquid  to  flow  into  the  float  bowl  from 
the  main  fuel  container.  When  the  level  reaches 
the  proper  height,  the  float  shuts  the  valve  and  the 
fuel  supply  is  stopped. 

Mixing  chambers  can  be  so  designed  that  the 


34  GASOLINE 


speed  of  the  entering  air  stream  at  low-engine  speed 
is  always  sufficient  to  pick  up  enough  fuel  to  form 
an  explosive  mixture.  This  is  accomplished  by 
constricting  the  chamber  at  the  proper  point,  thus 
insuring  a  high  velocity  of  air  past  the  top  of  the 
spray  nozzle,  even  at  low-engine  speed.  This  con- 
struction of  the  mixing  chamber,  called  a  Venturi 
mixing  chamber,  necessitates  another  improvement 
on  the  carburetor,  to  provide  for  the  introduction 
of  an  auxiliary  supply  of  air  through  a  separate 
opening.  This  is  necessary  because  with  Venturi- 
tube  construction  great  air  velocity  at  low-engine 
speed  means  that  the  air  velocity  might  be  great 
enough  to  draw  more  fuel  than  was  actuallv  needed 
into  the  engine  cylinder.  An  excessively  rich  mix- 
ture provided  at  high  speed  would  cause  overheat- 
ing and  waste  fuel,  while  a  comparatively  lean 
mixture  at  low-engine  speed  would  interfere  with 
prompt  starting.  The  rich  mixture  is  only  neces- 
sary for  starting,  while  a  much  thinner  mixture, 
or  one  containing  a  larger  proportion  of  air,  can  be 
used  to  advantage  at  high-engine  speed. 

The  auxiliary  air  passage  for  thinning  rich  mix- 
tures may  be  controlled  by  any  form  of  automatic 
valve;  for  instance,  by  means  of  a  spring-seated 
mushroom    or    poppet    valve.     The    spring  tension 


GASOLINE  35 


is  so  proportioned  that  the  valve  will  open  only  on 
medium-  and  high-engine  speeds,  at  which  times 
the  suction  is  greater  than  that  prevailing  at  low 
speed.  The  auxiliary  air  passages  are  sometimes 
controlled  by  means  of  reeds  which  open  progres- 
sively as  more  auxiliary  air  is  needed  or  by  a  series 
of  balls  which  close  the  auxiliary  air  ports.  The 
strength  of  the  reeds  or  the  weight  of  the  balls  may 
be  varied  so  the  air  passages  will  open  progressively 
and  admit  more  air  as  the  demands  increase. 

In  some  carburetors  (multiple  jet  carburetors) 
two  or  more  spray  nozzles  are  used  instead  of  a 
single  jet.  The  arrangement  is  usually  such  that 
the  primary  nozzle  is  used  at  low  speed  while  the 
secondary  nozzle  is  brought  into  action  at  higher 
speed  when  more  fuel  is  needed.  In  some  types  the 
arrangement  is  such  that  the  primary  nozzle  acts 
only  at  low  speed  while  the  secondary  nozzle  is 
brought  in  action  at  higher  speed  when  more  fuel 
is  needed.  In  some  types  the  arrangement  is  such 
that  the  primary  nozzle  acts  only  at  low  speed  while 
the  secondary  nozzle  supplies  gasoline  only  at  high 
speed.  In  other  multiple  jet  carburetors,  the  nozzles 
are  brought  into  action  progressively  when  the 
throttle  is  open  to  such  a  point  that  the  primary 
nozzle,  which  has  a  small  spraying  orifice,  cannot 


36  GASOLINE 


supply  fuel  enough;  then  the  secondary  nozzle  is 
brought  into  action  and  contributes  its  quota  of 
liquid  to  compensate  for  the  augmenting  demand 
of  the  engine. 

HOW  TO  ADJUST  THE  CARBURETOR 

The  carburetor  is  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  in  the  anatomy  of  the  car — like  the  lungs  to 
the  human  being.  On  it  the  smooth  running, 
power,  flexibility  and  economy  of  the  motor  are 
largely  dependent.  The  fulfillment  of  these  require- 
ments demands  a  good  mixture — one  that  is  cor- 
rectly proportioned  and  homogeneous,  whether  the 
throttle  is  open  or  shut  or  the  motor  is  running- 
fast  or  slow. 

The  other  requirements  of  a  carburetor  are 
atomization  and  vaporization  of  the  fuel.  The 
latter  varies  with  the  design  of  the  carburetor,  but 
the  former  is  more  or  less  dependent  on  adjust- 
ments, because  some  carburetors  have  more  adjust- 
ments than  others. 

A  good  adjustment  is  essential,  and  the  carbure- 
tor should  constantly  be  watched,  so  that  when  it 
shows  that  it  needs  attention  no  time  will  be  wasted 
in  giving  it.  Few  machines  in  the  hands  of  owners 
of  ordinary   automobile   knowledge   have   the   best 


GASOLINE  37 


adjustments  that  may  be  had,  and  many  have 
settings  that  are  poor. 

In  many  eases  poor  carburetor  adjustment  is 
due  to  ignorance  of  the  owner.  The  car  runs  on 
all  cylinders  and  has  a  certain  amount  of  power, 
and  it  is  not  until  he  compares  his  machine  with 
another  of  the  same  make  that  has  a  better  adjust- 
ment that  he  realizes  the  difference. 

The  amount  of  time  that  it  takes  to  obtain  a 
good  setting  is  variable,  and  may  run  up  into  several 
hours  even  when  an  experienced  man  is  doing  the 
work.  Here  is  another  reason  for  carburetor  short- 
comings— the  owner  takes  his  car  to  a  repairman 
to  have  the  carburetor  put  in  perfect  condition; 
the  latter  is  a  good  mechanic  and  obtains  a  fair 
setting  in  a  short  time,  but  try  as  he  will  he  cannot 
make  it  perfect. 

The  result  is  that  he  gives  it  up  as  a  bad  job  as 
soon  as  he  has  spent  as  much  time  as  he  feels  the 
owner  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  pay  for.  He 
cannot  explain  to  his  customer  that  it  might  take 
several  hours  to  obtain  the  best  adjustment.  If 
he  did,  he  would  be  looked  upon  as  a  poor  repair- 
man. So  he  tells  him  that  it  is  the  best  that  can 
be  done,  and  the  customer  takes  his  word  for  it. 
All  of  which  is  somewhat  aside  from  the  subject 


38  GASOLINE 


of  how  to  adjust  a  carburetor,  but,  nevertheless,  is 
something  that  every  owner  should  fully  understand. 

DIAGNOSING  CARBURETOR 

In  adjusting  the  carburetor,  the  first  essential 
is  to  be  able  to  tell  the  difference  between  a  weak 
and  a  rich  mixture.  In  either  case  the  car  will 
lack  power  and  may  knock,  and  with  too  rich  a 
mixture  it  may  also  overheat. 

If  there  is  too  much  air  the  motor  will  not  re- 
spond immediately  when  the  throttle  is  opened 
quickly;  there  will  be  a  lag  from  the  time  the  accel- 
erator pedal  is  depressed  until  the  car  begins  to 
gather  speed.  The  motor  may  also  back  fire, 
especially  at  high  speeds. 

With  too  much  gasoline,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  car  will  respond  instantly  to  the  opening  of 
the  throttle,  but  with  not  the  same  vim  as  with  a 
perfect  mixture.  A  great  excess  of  fuel  will  produce 
black  smoke  in  the  exhaust. 

Too  frequently,  when  one  of  these  symptoms  is 
recognized  or  the  car  is  operating  badly  for  any 
reason  at  all,  the  conclusion  is  that  the  carburetor 
needs  adjusting,  and  instead  of  improving  it,  it  is 
made  worse.  Never  touch  the  adjustments  on  a 
carburetor  until  you  are  sure  that  they  require  it. 


GASOLINE  39 


Faulty  ignition  and  leaky  cylinders  are  often 
mistaken  for  bad  carburet  ion.  Before  looking  at 
the  carburetor,  it  is  only  common  sense  to  make 
sure  that  the  trouble  is  not  elsewhere;  otherwise, 
you  may  complicate  matters  by  throwing  the  car- 
buretor out  of  adjustment. 

Breaker  points  out  of  adjustment,  spark  plugs 
short  circuited,  porcelains  cracked,  loose  connec- 
tions, grounds  and  even  a  retarded  spark  may  look 
like  carburetor  disease  until  an  investigation  is  made. 

Likewise,  valves  that  need  grinding  or  cylinders 
that  leak  may  also  throw  suspicion  on  the  car- 
buretor. 

A  faulty  mixture  may  be  the  result  of  many 
things  besides  improper  adjustment,  and  these 
must  all  be  eliminated  before  the  carburetor  setting 
is  changed. 

SMOKE  TESTS  FOR  AIR  LEAKS 

A  thin  mixture  may  be  caused  by  air  leaks  in 
the  manifold,  cylinder  head  gaskets,  valve  plugs 
or  valve  guides.  Any  of  these  will  produce  missing 
at  low  speed.  A  leak  in  any  part  of  the  manifold 
may  be  determined  by  noting  whether  smoke  from 
a  cigar  or  cigarette  will  be  sucked  in.  Other  leaks 
may  be  located  by  feeling  or  listening. 


40  GASOLINE 


The  mixture  will  be  weak  if  the  fuel  level  is  too 
low  in  the  float  chamber,  and  this  may  be  due  to 
a  bent  float  mechanism,  a  stuck  float,  or  if  there  is  a 
float  level  adjustment  there  may  be  some  difficulty 
with  this. 

The  absence  of  a  hot-air  or  a  hot- water  jacket 
may  also  produce  all  the  symptoms  of  too  weak  a 
charge,  particularly  in  cold  weather.  A  hot-air 
stove  is  a  necessary  adjunct  to  almost  all  carbure- 
tors not  equipped  with  a  hot- water  jacket. 

Naturally  any  obstruction  to  the  free  flow  of 
fuel  will  result  in  a  lean  mixture.  There  may  be 
dirt  in  the  pipe  or  in  the  holes  of  the  nozzle. 

Too  rich  a  mixture  may  be  caused  by  a  worn 
needle  or  nozzle,  but  is  usually  due  to  too  high  a 
fuel  level.  A  stuck  or  bent  float  mechanism  or 
dirt  under  the  float  valve  may  be  the  cause.  If  the 
float  is  made  of  cork,  the  shellac  may  gradually 
dissolve  and  the  fuel  will  soak  into  it,  making  it 
heavier  and  consequently  raising  the  level.  Simi- 
larly, a  pin  hole  in  a  metal  float  will  allow  gasoline 
to  enter  and  weight  it.  The  cork  float  may  be 
repaired  by  drying  in  an  oven  and  then  shellacing 
it  again,  and  the  metal  float  by  enlarging  the  hole, 
draining  the  gasoline  out  and  then  closing  it  with 
a  little  solder. 


GASOLINE  41 


Before  adjustment  of  carburetor  is  attempted, 
the  motor  should  be  allowed  to  run  until  it  is  thor- 
oughly warm  and  the  spark,  should  be  advanced 
about  two-thirds  of  the  way. 

The  secret  of  successful  carburetor  adjusting 
is  patience.  Each  screw  or  nut  must  be  varied  a 
little  at  a  time  until  the  best  position  is  obtained. 

The  easiest  way  to  determine  which  is  the  best 
setting  is  to  run  the  car  up  a  test  hill  after  each 
change.  Approach  the  bottom  of  the  hill  at  the 
same  speed  each  time,  depress  the  accelerator  at 
a  given  point  each  time,  and  then  note  the  speed 
obtained  at  the  top. 

If  there  is  no  hill  available,  an  acceleration  test 
will  prove  to  be  an  excellent  substitute.  Approach 
a  given  point  at  a  given  speed  and  on  passing  depress 
the  accelerator  and  note  what  the  speed  is  when 
passing  some  other  point. 

COMPOSITION  AND  POISONOUS  CHARAC- 
TER OF  EXHAUST  GASES  FROM 
GASOLINE  ENGINES 

The  public  press  has  devoted  more  or  less  space 
to  accidents  caused  by  exhaust  gases  from  auto- 
mobile locomotives  poisoning  people.  A  number 
of  fatal  accidents  have  occurred,  and  a  great  many 


42  GASOLINE 


people  have  suffered  more  or  less.  The  accidents 
have  been  due  to  the  running  of  gasoline  engines 
in  comparatively  small  and  usually  closed  garages. 
The  exhaust  gases  then  escape  into  the  small  closed 
garage  and  render  the  air  therein  more  or  less  danger- 
ous. The  press  has  given  to  some  of  these  accidents, 
as  the  result  of  a  statement  made  by  a  Professor 
at  the  University  of  Chicago,  the  name  of  "Petro- 
mortis,"  and  shrouds  the  cause  of  the  deaths  in 
more  or  less  mystery.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  reason 
why  exhaust  gases  from  gasoline  engines  are  poison- 
ous is  because  they  contain  more  or  less  of  a  deadly 
gas  called  carbon  monoxide  or  carbonic  oxide.  The 
chemical  symbol  is  CO.  This  gas  is  the  constituent 
in  illuminating  gas  that  makes  the  latter  poisonous. 
Every  once  in  a  while  one  reads  of  deaths  of  occu- 
pants of  rooms  into  which  illuminating  gas  has 
leaked  or  due  to  the  fact  that  the  gas  had  incom- 
pletely burned  in  a  stove.  In  both  cases  carbon 
monoxide  is  the  poisonous  gas  that  causes  the  deaths. 
Carbon  monoxide  is  also  the  correct  name  for  "White 
Damp,"  found  in  coal  mines  after  explosions  and 
mine  fires.  This  "White  Damp"  is  responsible 
for  more  deaths  in  mine  explosions  than  the  actual 
violence  due  to  the  explosion.  It  forms  immedi- 
ately after  explosions  in  mines  and  traps  the  miners, 


GASOLINE  43 


who  have  escaped  the  blast,  before  they  can  get 
out  of  the  mine. 

In  a  gasoline  locomotive  fuel  is  burned  within 
an  engine  cylinder,  and  the  exhaust  from  the  cylin- 
der is  a  mixture  of  gases.  The  composition  of  this 
mixture  of  gases  will  depend  on  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  gasoline  vapor  and  air  that  undergoes 
explosion  in  the  engine  cylinder.  If  the  mixture 
is  a  "rich"  one,  there  will  not  be  enough  air  to 
completely  burn  the  gasoline  vapor,  and  caibon 
monoxide  will  form  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  for 
carbon  monoxide  along  with  other  gases  is  a  product 
of  incomplete  combustion.  When  gasoline  under- 
goes complete  combustion,  only  carbon  dioxide 
and  water  vapor  should  result  from  the  explosion. 
Carbon  dioxide,  except  in  very  large  proportions, 
is  not  classed  as  a  dangerous  gas.  But  when  gaso- 
line vapor  does  not  have  enough  air  to  completely 
burn  it,  then  some  carbon  monoxide  forms.  Gaso- 
line vapor  is  explosive  in  air  when  proportions  of 
it  are  present  between  about  1.5  and  6.0  per  cent. 
When  the  proportion  of  gasoline  vapor  exceeds 
about  two  per  cent,  the  quantity  becomes  so  large 
that  not  enough  air  is  present  to  completely  burn 
the  gasoline,  and  carbon  monoxide  begins  to  form. 
Hence,   it   will  be   appreciated   that,   except   for   a 


44  GASOLINE 


comparatively  narrow  range  of  explosibility,  the 
chances  of  carbon  monoxide  occurring  in  the  ex- 
haust gases  are  very  great. 

The  following  table  shows  the  maximum  amounts 
of  carbon  monoxide  that  different  sizes  of  engines 
produce  under  conditions  of  proper  and  improper 
carburetor  adjustment. 


fe  u 

p  Noxious 

0°  F.  WITH 
CED 

*ETOR 

Carbo 
Dioxid 

IO 

CO 

CO     Ol 

© 

N 

i^ 

© 

© 

C~l 

Ol 

71 

eo 

© 

CO 

CO    o 

'O 

co 

CO 

b- 

-f 

© 

© 

© 

© 

a 

CO 

Ol 

co   ^ 

CO 

LfJ 

-f* 

iO 

CO 

© 

© 

X 

2 

0 

able  Quantity  o: 
et  a  Minute  at  6 
at  30  in.)  Produ 

WITH 

Bad  Cabbuj 
Carbon 
Monoxide 

a 
B 

T-H 

■* 

GO     CO 

© 

tO 

OS 

© 

© 

i> 

b- 

to 

«* 

© 

CO 

"3*    to 

to 

X 

J— 1 

to 

© 

© 

© 

■"# 

1— 1 

TJ 

© 

J> 

O    Ol 

— 

CO 

M 

to 

CO 

b- 

© 

CO 

>o 

c 

1—1    1—1 

1—1 

r-1 

Ol 

1—1 

Ol 

co 

&* 

B  H  PS 

BJ    „    H 

a> 

a*. 

o  4-» ! 

Maximum  P 

Gases  (Cubic 

Barome1 

rburetor 

Carbon 
Dioxide 

of  pr 

tmen 

o 

b- 

CO    o 

^H 

© 

"* 

CO 

© 

CO 

© 

X 

© 

co 
o 

CO 

to 

l-H      CO 

b-    CO 

tO 
CO 

- 

© 

© 

© 

b- 

tO 

CO 

X 

© 
© 

■ 

1-1 

rH 

1-1 

1-1 

1-1 

1— 1 

Ol 

w    w 

S    3 

ditio 
r  adj 

Piston  Dis- 
placement 
Cubic  Feet 
a  Minute 

Good  Ca 
Carbon 
Monoxide 

,—1 

CO 

co   o 

© 

b- 

b- 

b- 

-+ 

co 

X 

© 

Tfl 

CO 

— 

CM 

b-  co 

CM    60 

'O 

-t 

CO 

© 

© 

b- 

-* 

© 

b- 

© 

© 

r  con 
ureto 

03 

© 

(M    CO 

to 

to 

© 

© 

© 

01 

X 

i^ 

© 

b- 

re 

CO     i— I 

© 

b- 

CI 

© 

© 

i — i 

© 

© 

i— I 

r-l     (M 

rH 

(N 

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(M 

CO 

co 

-? 

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© 

<U  „G  1 

— 

"2  s 

0< 

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© 

©     © 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

o 

© 

©     ©' 

c 

© 

© 

© 

LO 

© 

© 

© 

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CO 

CO 

CO     CO 

© 

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© 

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'0 

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LO 

0) 

a 

m& 

3 

H3 

fe  1i 

0 

°  PS 

PS  w 
H.Q 
P5  Z 

•* 

"* 

"*  -* 

■^ 

-f 

■* 

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-f 

-p 

© 

Tf 

© 

a 

a  3 

.5 

£0 

"So 

55  Z  H 

LO 

Ol 

LO 

x 

b- 

b- 

CO 

H  H     - 

LO 

to 

tO    CO 

LO 

© 

b~ 

X 

X 

X 

b- 

b- 

b- 

22h 

i> 

X 

X     X 

X! 

X 

X 

LO 

IO 

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X 

X 

X 

Cfi   O   Q 

■* 

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*0    lo 

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© 

© 

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b- 

X 

X 

<V        .      T* 


46 GASOLINE 

The  foregoing  table  is  of  exceptional  interest 
in  showing  the  amount  of  carbon  monoxide  that 
may  be  produced  (cubic  feet  per  minute)  under 
different  conditions  of  engine  operation. 

If  a  gasoline  engine,  producing  five  cubic  feet 
of  carbon  monoxide  per  minute,  were  allowed  to 
run  in  a  tightly-closed  garage  that  was  twelve  feet 
high,  fifteen  feet  long,  and  fifteen  feet  wide,  i.e., 
having  a  capacity  of  2,750  feet,  it  could  produce 
an  atmosphere,  if  the  latter  were  thoroughly  mixed, 
containing  about  one  per  cent  carbon  monoxide  in 
about  five  minutes.  This  percentage  of  carbon 
monoxide  in  air  is  a  fatal  proportion,  and  would 
probably  kill  a  person  in  less  than  a  minute.  In 
fact,  an  exposure  for  as  long  as  twenty  minutes 
to  an  air  containing  as  little  as  .  25  per  cent  carbon 
monoxide  would  make  most  people  very  ill.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  great  danger  in  running 
automobile  engines  in  small,  closed  garages.  The 
latter  should  be  large  or  at  least  well-ventilated, 
and  engines  should  be  run  for  only  brief  periods  of 
time  in  them,  with  the  door  wide  open  and  with  the 
automobile  standing  very  close  to  the  door. 


GASOLINE  47 


THE  ART  OF  DRIVING 
Safe  Driving  and  Economy  Go  Hand  In  Hand 

It  is  often  stated,  and  with  a  great  deal  of  truth, 
that  most  automobile  accidents  occur  at  low  speed. 
The  fast  driver  is  seldom  a  reckless  driver;  while  the 
slow  driver  is  all  too  frequently  a  careless  one.  Not 
with  intent,  perhaps,  but  because  he  really  knows  but 
little  of  the  finer  points  of  driving,  and,  because  of 
never  having  driven  fast,  his  faculties  have  not  de- 
veloped the  degree  of  alertness  necessary  to  assure 
the  instantaneous  decision  and  quick  action  de- 
manded by  an  emergency.  The  blase  youth  in  his 
smart  race-about,  unconcernedly  driving  with  one 
hand  and  changing  gears  with  his  feet,  is  a  greater 
menace  to  public  safety  if  moving  at  the  rate  of 
only  four  miles  an  hour  than  is  the  veteran 
driver  whose  customary  road  gait  may  be  thirty  or 
more  miles  per  hour.  It  is  unfortunate  that  so 
many  drivers  are  turned  out  with  so  little  experi- 
ence. The  customary  three  to  five  lessons  which 
the  motor  car  salesman  or  demonstrator  has  the 
time  to  give  are  not  sufficient  to  impart  to  the 
average  person  more  than  enough  knowledge  of 
motor  car  driving  to  develop  him  into  a  public 
menace  and  make  him  a  thing  to  be  avoided  by 


48  GASOLINE 


older  and  expert  drivers.  Nor  is  the  youth  with  his 
race-about  the  only  offender.  Many  older  and 
supposedly  wiser  heads  drive  cars  and  at  the  same 
time  point  out  and  describe  scenery  along  the  road- 
side, or  turn  half  way  around  in  their  seats  to  con- 
verse with  passengers.  The  eyes  of  the  driver  of  a 
motor  car  should  never  be  removed  from  the  road 
ahead,  else  how  is  he  to  avoid  danger  in  passing 
cross-roads,  intersecting  streets,  pedestrians  and 
other  objects  on  the  road?  Careful  and  undivided 
attention  in  driving  a  car  is  as  essential  at  low  speeds 
as  at  high,  and  it  is  to  be  said  of  the  man  who  drives 
his  car  at  high  speed  that  if  he  were  not  a  safe  driver, 
did  not  know  the  finer  points  of  mechanical  manipu- 
lation of  his  engine  and  of  steering  and  devote  his 
constant  and  undivided  attention  to  the  business  in 
hand,  he  would  not  long  remain  a  danger,  as  a 
disastrous  accident  would  be  inevitable.  An  en- 
deavor is  made  here  to  suggest  to  the  motor-driving 
public  a  few  of  the  precautionary  measures  used  by 
the  experienced  and  veteran  driver.  The  observance 
of  some  of  these  suggestions  will  effect  a  saving  in 
gasoline,  and  others  are  included  with  a  view  to 
helping  the  careless  or  inexperienced  driver  to 
develop  into  a  safe  one. 

When  the  driver  is  approaching  an  obstruction 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E  49 


on  the  road,  cross-streets,  any  point  where  there  may 
be  necessity  for  a  quick  get-away  or  for  more  power 
than  might  be  needed  under  normal  circumstances, 
it  is  always  advisable  to  get  into  intermediate  gears 
when  coming  up  on  the  object,  as  the  driver  is  then 
prepared  to  instantaneously  apply  the  maximum 
power  of  his  motor  and  to  quickly  and  accurately  go 
through  or  get  away  from  an  otherwise  dangerous 
situation. 

In  a  shaft-driven  car  the  noise  sometimes  caused 
by  the  changing  of  gears  may  usually  be  avoided, 
if  the  operator,  instead  of  declutching  and  changing 
from  gear  to  gear,  as  is  the  usual  practice,  will  de- 
clutch, shift  to  neutral,  let  his  clutch  in  and  declutch 
again  before  completing  the  change.  This  requires 
but  an  instant  and  is  a  trick  well  worth  acquiring. 

In  slowing  down  to  turn  corners,  or  in  traffic, 
if  the  spark  is  retarded  as  the  brakes  are  applied 
and  advanced  after  the  corner  or  obstruction  is 
passed,  it  will  result  in  a  much  more  rapid  get-away 
for  the  car,  and  save  some  gasoline. 

The  desire  to  eliminate  waste  in  the  consumption 
of  gasoline  has  caused  motor  car  owners  to  devote 
considerable  thought  to  the  subject  of  whether  or 
not  electric  starting  and  lighting  systems  on  motor 
cars  are  economical  from  the  standpoint  of  gasoline 


50  GASOLINE 


consumption.  The  arguments  for  and  against 
electrical  equipment  are  equally  logical,  and  it 
would  seem  to  be  a  matter  for  the  individual  driver 
to  decide.  The  operation  of  the  generator  geared 
to  the  motor  naturally  detracts  its  quota  from  the 
power  of  the  engine  and  consequently  increases 
gasoline  consumption  over  the  amount  that  would 
be  required  merely  to  propel  the  car.  Where  self- 
starting  devices  are  used  the  driver  is  apt  to  grow 
careless  in  the  handling  of  throttle  or  gears  and 
actually  propel  the  car  at  times  on  the  starter  cur- 
rent, when  otherwise  his  engine  would  be  stalled. 
For  this  reason  the  self-starter  necessitates  the  in- 
stallation of  considerable  generating  capacity,  so 
that  the  drain  on  the  gasoline  tank  due  to  increased 
power  requirements  is  appreciable.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  driver  of  a  motor  car  which  is  not  equipped 
with  a  self-starting  device  and  must  be  cranked  by 
hand  is  apt,  on  many  occasions,  to  allow  his  motor 
to  run  idle  rather  than  to  experience  the  incon- 
venience of  getting  out  of  his  machine  to  crank  it, 
which  would  not  be  necessary  if  the  car  were  equipped 
with  a  starting  device. 

Savings  in  gasoline  consumption  may  be  easily 
effected  if  the  driver  will  make  a  point  of  always 
putting  his  gears  in  neutral  when  coasting  down 


GASOLINE  51 


hill  and  allowing  the  engine  to  idle  at  its  lowest 
rate.  It  is  the  usual  practice  with  many  amateur 
drivers  to  feed  gasoline  to  the  motor  under  conditions 
where  sufficient  speed  will  be  supplied  by  the  force 
of  gravity. 

Except  on  cars  with  an  automatic  or  fixed  spark 
a  considerable  gasoline  saving  can  be  effected  by 
proper  handling  of  the  spark  lever.  This  can  be 
easily  proven  by  setting  the  hand  throttle  at  a 
point  while  traveling  over  level  ground  and  then 
noting  the  variation  in  speed  obtained  by  advancing 
and  retarding  the  spark.  When  a  grade  or  a  heavy 
hill  is  encountered,  the  spark  should  always  be 
retarded  and  when  the  motor  is  being  driven  at 
anything  approximating  its  maximum  speed,  this 
spark  should  be  considerably  advanced  beyond  the 
normal  driving  position.  The  most  experienced 
drivers  keep  moving  the  spark  lever  almost  con- 
tinuously, except  at  high  speeds,  and  this  is  necessary 
if  one  would  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  motor. 
If  the  spark  is  not  in  the  proper  position,  the  motor 
requires  more  gasoline  than  it  would  if  its  explosions 
were  properly  timed,  and  this  can  readily  be  proven 
by  the  simple  test  outlined  above. 

Motorists    would    effect    a    considerable    saving 
in  the  cost  of  their  gasoline  if  they  would,  wherever 


52  G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


possible,  house  their  car  in  a  private  garage.  A 
private  garage  with  a  gasoline  tank  sunk  in  the 
ground  outside  would  enable  the  owner  to  save  from 
one  cent  to  three  cents  per  gallon,  as  in  this  quantity 
gasoline  can  be  purchased  at  wholesale  for  the  same 
price  paid  by  the  public  garages. 

Many  practicable,  portable  garages  are  ob- 
tainable at  a  low  cost  and  they  are  always  prac- 
ticable, except  in  cold  climates  where  there  is  danger 
of  the  motor  freezing  in  winter.  This  danger  can 
frequently  be  obviated  by  running  a  steam  pipe  into 
the  garage  from  the  plant  used  to  heat  the  house  or 
other  premises. 

Some  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  idea  of 
community  garages.  Where  four  or  five  owners  of 
motor  cars  are  living  in  the  same  neighborhood,  and 
space  is  available,  an  inexpensive  garage  can  be 
constructed  and  maintained  on  a  community  basis, 
with  a  man  employed  to  wash  the  cars  and  attend 
to  oil  and  gasoline  supply,  etc.  The  cost  of  main- 
tenance of  such  a  garage  would  be  considerably  less 
than  the  cost  of  keeping  the  various  cars  in  public 
garages  and  would  afford  their  owners  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  wholesale  gasoline  and  oil  supply. 

Manv  drivers  of  motor  cars  travel  in  the  course 
of  a  season  a  considerably  greater  number  of  miles 


G  A  SPUN  E 53 

than  is  necessary,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they 
do  not  keep  to  the  proper  side  of  the  road  and  do 
not  take  curves  properly.  On  a  left-hand  curve, 
where  it  is  possible  to  see  ahead,  as  it  so  often  is,  it  is 
a  great  advantage  to  drive  on  the  inside.  This 
gives  the  advantage  of  affording  a  banked  curve, 
lessening  the  possibility  of  sliding  off  the  road  at 
high  speed  and  considerably  lessening  the  distance 
traveled  and  consequent  consumption  of  gasoline. 
In  taking  right-hand  curves  it  is  always  advisable 
to  hug  the  inside  of  the  curve.  Of  course,  where  the 
view  is  obstructed  one  should  not  take  a  left-hand 
curve  on  the  inside,  as  it  would  be  a  dangerous 
practice  to  do  so;  but  where  the  view  is  not  obstructed 
one  should  always  adhere  as  closely  to  a  straight 
line  as  possible,  taking  the  curves  on  their  inside  and 
returning  to  the  right-hand  side  of  the  road  after 
the  curve  has  been  passed. 

Many  motorists  incur  great  danger  to  them- 
seJves  and  others  by  stopping  their  cars  for  tire  and 
other  repairs  immediately  beyond  a  curve,  so  that 
another  machine  following  them  after  rounding  the 
curve  finds  the  road  immediately  ahead  obstructed, 
with  great  danger  to  both  machines  and  their 
occupants. 

Tire  repairs  should  never  be  made  beside  the 


54  GASOLINE 


machine,  but  either  in  front  or  to  the  rear  of  it,  so 
as  not  to  obstruct  the  road,  but  give  other  cars  a 
chance  to  pass. 

A  great  deal  of  useless  gasoline  consumption  is 
brought  about  by  drivers  racing  their  engines  before 
letting  in  the  clutch  at  starting.  This  uses  gasoline 
unnecessarily,  and  the  driver  should  learn  to  apply 
the  gas  at  the  exact  moment  that  the  clutch  takes 
hold. 

In  city  driving  it  is  advisable  to  coast  over  car 
tracks  and  street  intersections  where  possible,  as 
it  is  a  strain  on  the  motor  to  drive  over  obstructions 
under  power,  and  entails  an  unnecessary  expendi- 
ture of  gasoline.  Much  gasoline  can  be  saved  by 
early  preparation  to  apply  brakes.  Coming  up  to 
an  object  slowly  and  with  the  clutch  out,  the  engine 
idling  and  the  car  completely  under  control,  is  much 
better  driving  than  to  approach  closely  to  the  object 
at  speed  under  power  before  making  a  quick  applica- 
tion of  the  brakes.  Having  the  car  at  all  times 
under  control  will  not  only  result  in  a  considerable 
saving  in  gasoline  consumption,  but  is  infinitely 
safer. 

Motorists  cannot  pay  too  much  attention  to  the 
adjustment  of  their  carburetors,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that   but   few   carburetors   on   motor   cars   are    so 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


adjusted  as  to  give  them  maximum  efficiency. 
Proper  adjustment  of  the  carburetor  will  often  result 
in  a  great  increase  in  mileage,  and  in  some  instances 
has  been  known  to  make  a  difference  of  as  great  as 
one  hundred  per  cent.  Too  much  attention  cannot 
be  paid  to  this  and  the  adjustment  should  be  made 
by  an  expert  and  not  tampered  with  afterward. 
Many  drivers  are  continuously  changing  their  car- 
buretor adjustment,  which  is  not  only  bad  practice, 
but  results  in  continuous  wastes  of  gasoline. 

Many  new  drivers  become  nervous  when  it  is 
necessary  to  back  their  cars.  They  should  remember 
that  driving  backwards  entails  exactly  the  same 
process  as  driving  forward,  except  that  the  operator 
turns  his  head  and  looks  in  the  direction  toward 
which  the  car  is  moving.  The  feet  and  hands  work 
in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  when  driving  for- 
ward. 

There  are  many  conditions  under  which  a  saving 
in  gasoline  could  be  effected  if  the  average  operator 
were  not  so  decidedly  averse  to  shifting  gears. 
Shifting  to  intermediate  gears  in  time  will  prevent 
stalling  the  motor,  and  where  self-starter  equipment 
has  been  installed  it  will  prevent  driving  on  the 
starter  current.  The  operator  should  always  re- 
member that  not  only  is  a  stalled  motor  harder  to 


56  GASOLINE 


start  than  a  motor  that  has  been  stopped  under 
normal  conditions,  but  that  it  takes  more  gasoline  to 
start  it.  In  case  of  electric  starting  equipment  it 
requires  part  of  the  engine's  power  to  replace  the 
charge  of  electricity  so  consumed. 

If  the  motorist  will  entirely  remove  the  wind- 
shield from  the  car  in  good  weather  the  result  will 
be  a  saving  in  gasoline.  Without  the  wind  resistance 
offered  by  the  windshield  less  power  is  required  to 
propel  the  car,  consequently  less  gasoline.  It  is  a 
question  whether  it  is  not  more  comfortable  to  drive 
in  all  weathers  without  a  windshield,  because  of  the 
vacuum  that  is  created  behind  the  shield  with  the 
resulting  draught  on  the  neck  of  the  driver.  With 
the  windshield  removed,  ail  of  the  cold  is  felt  on  the 
face  and  the  front  of  the  body,  which  is  the  natural 
place  for  it. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  devoted  to  having 
one's  car  continuously  under  control  in  passing  in- 
tersecting streets  or  cross-roads  and  meeting  and 
overtaking  other  cars.  /Occidents  result  all  too 
often  through  a  sublime  trust  in  tbe  driver  of  the 
other  car.  He  does  not  always  do  the  right  thing, 
and  it  is  well  to  be  prepared. 

To  owners  of  cars  that  are  not  equipped  with  self- 
starters  it  is  well  to  suggest  that  they  pay  particular 


GASOLINE  57 


attention  to  the  position  of  the  spark  lever  before 
cranking.  The  back-firing  of  the  engine  and  the 
resulting  broken  arms  are  usually  caused  by  a 
spark  carelessly  advanced  beyond  the  point  of 
safety. 

Skidding  may  be  avoided  by  learning  to  apply 
the  brakes  earlier  and  more  slowly  than  would 
otherwise  be  done  when  traveling  on  treacherous 
surfaces.  When  passing  a  car  ahead,  do  not  swing 
in  close  in  front  of  it.  Make  your  curve  gradual 
and  easy  and  you  will  travel  a  less  distance  and  use 
less  gasoline,  besides  avoiding  considerable  danger. 
Though  the  extra  gasoline  consumed  in  swinging 
shorter  than  is  necessary  in  front  of  the  car  that  is 
being  overtaken  may  be  so  small  as  to  be  almost 
inappreciable,  it  is  apt  to  amount  to  a  substantial 
total  when  the  season's  mileage  is  considered.  In- 
cidentally, it  is  bad  steering  and  at  high  speeds  may 
result  in  a  skid  or  an  overturned  car. 

The  most  misunderstood  appliance  on  a  motor  car 
is  what  is  known  as  the  emergency  or  hand  brake, 
and  because  of  its  name  it  is  usually  used  only  in  em- 
ergencies. The  operator  will  find  that  he  drives  with 
less  energy  and  more  comfort  in  proportion  to  the 
use  that  he  makes  of  the  so-called  emergency  or 
hand-brake.     With    this    brake    the    car    can    be 


58  GASOLINE 


handled  without  jar  and  can  be  brought  gently  to  a 
quick  stop  if  the  operator  is  practised  in  its  use. 

An  easy  method  of  calculating  gasoline  mileage 
is  to  fill  the  tank  full,  drive  your  car  where  you  will 
and  have  the  tank  refilled  on  your  return.  The 
number  of  gallons  required  to  refill  the  tank  divided 
into  the  mileage  shown  on  your  speedometer  will 
give  the  miles  per  gallon. 

A  flat  can  holding  a  gallon  of  gasoline  that  can  be 
tucked  away  under  the  seat  is  apt  to  prove  a  delight- 
ful convenience  in  a  possible  emergency.  Few 
gasoline  gauges  are  accurate  after  they  have  been 
used  for  a  time  and  there  are  few  motorists  who  have 
not  occasionally  been  caught  on  the  road  without 
gas,  sometimes  uncomfortably  far  from  a  source  of 
supply. 

A  very  wasteful*  custom  practised  by  many 
drivers,  particularly  after  tire  or  other  repairs  have 
been  performed  on  the  road,  is  to  wash  their  hands 
in  gasoline  taken  from  a  flooded  carburetor.  A  bit 
of  waste  and  a  comparatively  few  drops  of  gasoline 
is  decidedly  more  economical  and  will  have  the  same 
cleansing  effect  on  the  hands. 

Many  old  drivers  remember  times  before  the  in- 
vention of  vacuum  and  pressure  feeds  for  gasoline 
when  their  car  would  refuse  to  take  a  grade  because 


G  A  SO  LINE  51) 


of  low  gasoline  supply  and  it  was  necessary  to  turn 
the  car  and  back  up  the  grade,  that  being  the  only 
way  to  keep  the  level  of  the  low  supply  of  gasoline 
remaining  in  the  tank  above  the  level  of  the  car- 
buretor. Vacuum  and  pressure  feeds  are  an  en- 
joyable convenience.  They  constitute  a  corres- 
ponding danger,  as  they  give  no  warning  of  shortage 
of  gasoline  until  the  entire  supply  is  exhausted,  there- 
fore it  is  well  to  keep  a  small  emergency  can  in  the 
car.  If  your  car  has  a  low  clearance  and  a  gasoline 
tank  suspended  from  the  rear,  it  is  well  to  be  cautious 
in  driving  over  bumps  and  obstructions,  as  gasoline 
tanks  are  known  to  have  been  scraped  off  at  in- 
opportune moments  in  localities  devoid  of  repair 
shops. 

It  is  of  interest  to  the  motor  car  owner  to  know 
that  practically  one-third  of  the  money  he  spends 
for  gasoline  passes  out  through  the  radiator  without 
having  served  a  useful  purpose,  and  it  is  said  that  the 
modern  gasoline  engines  with  the  cooling  systems  now 
in  use  sometimes  waste  as  much  as  eighty-five  per 
cent  of  the  power  of  the  gasoline  they  consume. 
Science  has  yet  to  devise  a  means  by  which  explosive 
or  combustible  energy  can  be  utilized  without  an 
enormous  percentage  of  waste. 


60  GASOLINE 


AUTOMOBILE  POINTERS 

If  your  exhaust  smokes,  it  is  a  sure  sign  that  too 
much  oil  is  being  fed.  This  will  always  cause  a 
deposit  of  burned  oil  in  the  cylinders;  not  car- 
bonization, but  just  as  troublesome. 

Oils  must  have  lubricating  body  so  that  pistons 
will  not  be  worn  out  from  lack  of  lubrication.  Just 
because  a  particular  oil  you  are  using  does  not 
cause  carbonization  in  your  motor,  it  is  not  a  sure 
sign  that  the  oil  is  best  adapted  to  your  needs. 
Freedom  from  carbon  deposits  is  a  good  thing,  but 
if  this  happens  because  the  oil  does  not  have  lubri- 
cating body,  and  hence  allows  the  pistons  to  be 
worn  from  lack  of  lubricating,  the  error  is  just  as 
serious  from  this  cause. 

One  cannot  judge  an  oil  by  its  color.  Some 
inferior  oils  look  about  the  same  as  good  oils. 

First  choose  good  oil,  and  then  feed  as  much  of 
this  oil  as  you  can  without  allowing  the  engine  to 
smoke. 

A  poor  grade  of  lubricating  oil  will  cause  carbon 
deposits  on  combustion  chamber  walls,  piston  heads 
and  on  points  of  spark  plugs.  Carbon  on  spark 
plugs  may  form  a  short  circuit  interfering  with 
ignition.     If  the  deposit  is  too  great,  it  will   hold 


GASOLINE 61 

heat  enough  between  explosions  to  cause  pre- 
ignition. 

Gasoline  should  not  be  put  in  a  car  through 
chamois.  Ptacic  electricity  is  produced  by  the 
friction  of  the  gasoline  going  through  the  chamois. 
Sparks  have  been  generated  in  this  manner  causing 
bad    accidents. 

Low-gravity  gasolines  require  more  air  than  the 
higher  gravities,  but  if  well  refined  are  just  as  clean 
and  more  powerful.  They  are  somewhat  slower 
to  start  in  cold  weather. 

If  the  radiator  is  cold  and  the  water  jackets 
extremely  hot,  the  water  is  not  circulating,  owing 
to  a  pump  shortage  or  an  air-lock.  Overheating 
often  causes  preignition. 

Sometimes  the  carburetor  catches  fire  because 
of  a  back  shot  from  the  cylinders.  By  turning 
off  the  gasoline,  and  racing  the  engine,  the  fire  can 
sometimes  be  sucked  out. 

The  best  time  to  test  batteries  is  immediately 
after  a  trip  and  not  before,  because  batteries  pick 
up  in  voltage  to  a  certain  extent  on  standing,  and 
do  not  show  the  true  voltage. 

Sometimes  the  water  circulating  system  gets 
clogged  up  and  needs  cleaning.  This  can  be  done 
by  first  using  a  soda  solution  to  dissolve  the  grease 


62  GASOLINE 


in  the  tubes,  followed  by  a  mixture  containing 
twenty-five  parts  of  the  commercial  grade  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  seventy -five  parts  of  water. 

In  washing  varnish  surfaces,  first  use  clean  water 
followed  with  suds  made  by  dissolving  one  pound 
of  high-grade  soft  oil  soap  to  each  gallon  of  water, 
using  about  one  pint  of  the  suds  to  one  pail  of  water. 
Keep  raw  soap  out  of  the  suds. 

If  a  ball  in  a  bearing  needs  changing,  all  of  the 
balls  in  that  bearing  should  be  renewed.  Never 
change  a  single  ball. 

Mica  lights  in  a  curtain  can  be  cleaned  by  first 
dampening  them  carefully  with  vinegar,  and  then 
rinsing  them  off  with  clean,  cold  water. 

Headlights  should  be  set  to  throw  light  straight 
ahead,  not  pointed  down  at  the  road  at  an  angle. 

You  may  save  runaways  by  observing  that  the 
clutch  is  in  neutral  before  starting  your  motor. 

Keep  your  tires  well  inflated,  as  full  tires  present 
less  wearing  surface  on  the  road  and  there  is  less 
wear  on  the  side  walls. 

Soot  can  be  kept  out  of  small  holes  in  your  su  ety- 
lene  burners  by  turning  off  the  acetylene  gas  and 
blowing  the  flame  out  instead  of  turning  the  lights 
down  low,  or  letting  the  flame  die  out  after  turning 
off  the  gas. 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E  63 


ENGINE  TROUBLES 

Practically  all  engine  troubles  with  which  the 
drivers  of  motor  cars  have  to  contend  have 
their  origin  from  the  fact  that  there  is  something 
wrong  with  the  gasoline  supply,  the  ignition  or  the 
lubrication.  The  fact  that  something  is  wrong  with 
the  engine  is  usually  made  known  by  some  unusual 
noise  or  action  on  the  part  of  the  engine,  which 
attracts  the  attention  of  the  motorist. 

It  is  undoubtedly  the  simplest  way,  when  he  is 
searching  for  his  engine  trouble,  for  the  motorist  to 
start  with  the  result  which  is  the  evidence  of  trouble, 
and  by  experimentation  find  his  way  back  to  the 
cause. 

We  have  endeavored  below  to  indicate  the  prob- 
able causes  of  various  engine  troubles  which  are 
most  commonly  met  with. 

DIFFICULTY  IN  STARTING  ENGINE 
Gasoline.      Make  sure  that  there  is  gasoline  in  the  tank, 
and  by  priming  the  carburetor  or  pushing  down  the  carburetor 
float  make  sure  that  there  is  no  stoppage  in  the  connecting 
pipe  from  the  gasoline  tank.     Gasoline  will  drip  if  the  car- 
buretor is  full.     Stoppage  of  the  vent  hole  in  the  tank  cap 
may  interrupt  flow  of  gas.     If  the  system  is  pressure  system, 
pressure  may  be  wanted  in  the  tank. 
Try  closing  air  intake  valve. 
The  difficulty  may  be  caused  by  old  or  poor  gasoline. 


64  GASOLINE 


The  engine  may  be  flooded  with  gasoline  so  that  the  spark 
plug  points  are  soaked.  Open  relief  cocks  on  engine,  and, 
having  closed  the  throttle,  crank  the  engine  until  there  is  an 
explosion.  To  start,  close  the  relief  cocks  and  open  throttle 
slightly.  If  the  float  in  the  carburetor  is  loose  it  will  cause 
flooding  of  the  engine. 

Ignition.  The  spark  points  on  plug  may  be  sooted,  and 
should  be  cleaned,  or  they  may  be  burned  and  corroded,  and 
should  be  smoothed  off,  and  the  gap  not  more  than  l-32d  of 
an  inch  for  coil  ignition,  or  l-64th  of  an  inch  for  magneto 
ignition.  A  cracked  porcelain  on  the  plug  may  also  cause 
trouble. 

Test  the  battery,  if  battery  ignition,  and  see  if  you  can  get 
a  spark  on  the  top  of  the  spark  plug  when  the  wire  is  removed 
and  held  about  l-32d  of  an  inch  from  the  metai  top. 

MISSING  OF  EXPLOSIONS 

Gasoline.  Too  much  cold  air  may  be  coming  through  the 
air  valve,  or  the  carburetor  jets  may  be  clogged  with  dirt,  or 
by  stoppage  in  the  gasoline  pipe  the  free  supply  of  gasoline 
is  interrupted.  Examine  the  intake  gaskets.  There  may  be 
dirt  or  water  in  the  carburetor. 

If  the  engine  is  missing  on  low  speed  the  mixture  is  prob- 
ably too  rich  or  there  is  a  leak  in  the  intake  pipe  to  the  engine. 

If  the  engine  misses  at  high  speed  and  not  at  low  speed  it 
may  be  getting  too  much  gasoiine. 

An  engine  may  miss  until  it  gets  warmed  up.  The  most 
common  cause  for  missing  is  too  lean  a  gasoline  mixture. 

Ignition.  Missing  may  be  caused  by  the  spark  plugs 
being  sooted  or  by  the  gap  being  too  wide  between  points  on 
spark  plug.     Examine  interrupter  points  of  the  magneto. 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E  65 


If  the  missing  is  at  high  speed,  but  not  at  low,  the  trouble 
is  not  with  the  spark  plugs. 

Screw  up  the  contact  point  in  the  magneto  breaker  box, 
giving  it  only  a  very  slight  turn.  The  coil  may  be  defective, 
if  a  coil  ignition  is  used. 

If  the  missing  is  at  low  speed  try  advancing  the  spark  and 
examine  the  interrupter  points  on  the  magneto.  Also  ex- 
amine spark  plug  points.  As  a  last  resort  look  for  loose 
connection  or  a  broken-down  coil,  if  a  coil  is  used. 

If  the  missing  is  at  all  speeds,  the  cause  may  be  defective 
spark  plug,  loose  connection,  weak  battery,  broken  wire, 
slight  short  circuit  or  loose  switch  parts. 

STOPPING  OF  ENGINE 

Gasoline.  If  it  is  cold,  engine  may  need  to  be  warmed  up. 
Give  richer  mixture.  Be  sure  there  is  no  stoppage  of  gasoline 
in  engine  by  priming  carburetor.  Examine  connections  to 
tank  and  gasoline  supply  and  close  air  valve.  Again,  the 
trouble  may  be  too  much  gasoline. 

The  sudden  stoppage  of  engine  may  be  due  to  lack  of 
gasoline,  though  the  usual  cause  is  ignition  trouble. 

A  slow  stoppage  of  the  engine  combined  with  missing  of 
explosions  indicates  gasoline  trouble.  See  if  needle  valve 
of  carburetor  has  jarred  itself  closed. 

Probably  the  mixture  of  gas  does  not  reach  the  cylinder. 

Ignition.  Weak  battery  may  be  the  trouble,  or  too 
much  retarded  spark.  Look  for  a  loose  wire,  short  circuit, 
poor  switch  connection,  and  see  if  points  to  interrupter  to 
magneto   are   pitted.     If   so,    smooth   off   with   emery   cloth. 

Sudden  stoppage  of  engine  is  usually  due  to  ignition 
trouble.  If  engine  stops  slowly  it  may  be  exhausted  bat 
teries  or  fouled  plugs. 


66  GASOLINE 


FAILURE  OF  ENGINE  TO  PULL 
Gasoline.     The   mixture   may   be  too  rich,   and   will   be 

indicated  by  black  smoke,  or  the  valves  may  be  leaking  and 

the  compression  poor. 

Ignition.      If  the  cause  is  weak  spark  it  will  be  indicated 

by  missing  of  the  engine. 

IRREGULAR  RUNNING  OF  ENGINE 
Gasoline.      Air  probably  leaking  in  between  carburetor 
and   cylinders  through   gaskets  is  the  cause  of  this  trouble 
or  there  may  be  too  much  gasoline  supplied  to  engine.     Give 
needle  valve  of  carburetor  slight  turn  down. 

Ignition.      Spark  may  be  too  much  advanced. 

FAILURE  OF  ENGINE  TO  PICK  UP  QUICKLY 
Gasoline.      This    trouble  is   almost   invariably   the   fault 
of  carburetor  adjustment,  too  much  air  being  furnished  on 
low  speed  through  the  auxiliary  air  intake,  making  too  weak 
a  mixture  for  "pick  up"  purposes. 

The  auxiliary  air  valve  and  gasoline  needle  valve  on  car- 
buretor should  be  carefully  adjusted. 

LACK  OF  POWER 

Gasoline.  Valves  may  need  grinding,  or  exhaust  valves 
may  leak;  timing  of  valves  may  be  wrong  and  should  be  ad- 
justed; the  cylinder  or  piston  rings  may  be  worn  so  that  there 
is  no  compression.     The  gasoline  mixture  may  be  too  rich. 

Ignition.  Timing  of  spark  may  be  wrong,  either  too  far 
retarded  or  too  far  advanced. 

Lubrication.  There  may  be  lack  of  oil  in  the  cylinders 
causing  overheating  of  the  engine.  Overheating  itself 
diminishes  power,  and  it  may  be  caused  by  defect  in  the 
circulation  system.     There  may  be  tight  bearings. 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E  67 


KNOCKING 

Gasoline.      Mixture  may  be  too  rich. 

Ignition.  Spark  may  be  too  far  advanced.  This  is  the 
usual  cause.     There  may  be  carbon  deposit  in  cylinders. 

Lubrication.  Pistons  may  become  worn  from  use  or 
lack  of  oil,  or  bearings  may  become  loosened. 

Engine    overload    on    hill    will    cause    knocking. 

OVERHEATING 

Gasoline.  Mixture  may  be  too  rich,  or  throttle  too  open, 
with  spark  too  much  retarded. 

Ignition.  Overheating  will  result  always  from  running 
on  retarded  spark.  Car  should  always  be  driven  with  spark 
advanced  as  far  as  possible  without  causing  motor  to  knock. 

Lubrication.  Common  cause  of  overheating  is  trouble 
with  the  oiling  system. 

Miscellaneous  Causes.  Water  circulating  system  out 
of  order;  carbon  deposit  in  cylinders;  too  tight  bearings,  which 
should  be  loosened  up  and  plenty  of  oil  applied;  driving  for 
long  period  on  low  gear;  dragging  brakes;  slipping  fan  belt. 

BACK  FIRING  IN  MUFFLER 
Gasoline.  Too  weak  a  mixture  or  wrong  timing  of  spark 
may  cause  one  cylinder  to  miss  fire,  causing  gasoline  to  be 
pumped  to  muffler  and  there  exploded  by  heat  of  exhaust. 
Failing  of  gasoline  supply  may  be  cause  of  irregular  spark  or 
leaking  valves.  Examine  spark  plug  points  and  see  that 
they  are  not  more  than  l-32d  of  an  inch  apart,  if  coil,  and 
l-64th  of  an  inch,  if  magneto. 

Ignition.  Firing  a  charge  which  has  entered  muffler 
unfired  by  suddenly  throwing  on  switch  after  coasting,  with 
the  spark  off  and  retarded. 


68  GASOLINE 


CLUTCH  TROUBLES 

If  the  clutch  grabs  and  is  of  the  cone  type,  leather  is  too 
dry,  and  after  cleaning  with  gasoline  should  have  either  castor 
oil  or  neat's-foot  oil.  If  the  multiple  disc  clutch  is  used. 
lighter  oil  should  be  applied  after  cleaning,  or  spring  on 
clutch  may  be  too  tight. 

Oil  on  the  clutch  leather  of  the  cone  type  indicates  too 
much  oil  in  crank  case,  which  has  worked  out  along  engine 
bearing. 

If  clutch  slips,  as  is  indicated  by  the  car  dragging  when 
engine  is  running  well,  the  spring  may  need  tightening  on  the 
clutch,  or  if  leather  clutch,  too  much  oil  may  be  on  leather 
and  should  be  cleaned  off  with  gasoline. 

If  leather  clutch  still  slips  use  fuller's  earth  as  a  last 
resort.     In  the  disc  clutch,  plates  may  be  worn. 

There  are  other  less  common  difficulties  with 
engines,  as  follows : 

FAILURE  OF  ENGINE  TO  STOP  WHEN  SWITCHED 
OFF 

This  may  be  caused  by  poor  lubricating  oil,  which  causes 
a  hardening  of  carbon  on  the  spark  plug,  which  gets  red  hi  t 
and  causes  pre-ignition. 

If  the  engine  continues  to  fire  regularly  when  the  switch 
is  off,  there  is  probably  a  defect  in  the  switch.  Overheating 
may  cause  this  trouble. 

HOT  CRANK  CASE  AND  WEAK  ENGINE 

This  is  usually  due  to  a  leak  around  the  piston  rings,  or  a 
crack  in  the  head  of  the  piston  and  gas  escaping  ahum  tin- 
piston  bearing. 


GASOLINE  69 


HISSING  OF  ENGINE 

This  is  usually  caused  by  joint  between  engine  and  ex- 
haust pipe  being  loose,  exhaust  pipe  cracked,  porcelain  spark 
plug  broken,  spark  plug  not  tightly  set  in  cylinder,  or  valve 
caps  loose. 

SMOKE  FROM  MUFFLER 

The  cause  of  this  is  over-lubrication.  If  the  smoke  is 
black,  the  indication  is  too  much  gasoline.  Smoking  may 
also  be  caused  by  leaking  piston  rings. 

LEAKING  OF  OIL  FROM  ENGINE 

Worn  bearings  or  loose  gaskets  in  crank  case,  or  crank  case 
flooded  with  oil,  usually  is  the  cause  of  this  trouble. 

NON-FREEZING  SOLUTIONS 

Salt  solutions  are  not  recommended  because  of 
their  deleterious  effects  on  the  metals  of  the  cooling- 
systems.  Alcohol  solutions  probably  give  the  best 
results.  Occasionally,  hydrometer  tests  should  be 
made  and  the  solution  maintained  at  the  required 
density  by  the  addition  of  alcohol. 

Denatured  Alcohol  Solutions 

Per  Cent  of  Specific  Gravity    Freezes,  Fahrenheit 


Alcohol 

(Water  = 

1) 

Scale 

10 

.987 

25°  above  zero 

20 

.974 

13°       " 

30 

.960 

2°  below  zero 

40 

.946 

19°       " 

50 

.934 

34°       " 

60 

,920 

47°      "         « 

70 

GASOLINE 

Wood  Alcohol  Solutions 

Per  cent  of 

Specific  Gravity 

Freezes.  Fahrenheit 

Alcohol 

(Water  =  1) 

Scale 

10 

.988 

18°  above  zero 

20 

.  975 

5°       " 

30 

.963 

10°  below  zero 

40 

.950 

19°       " 

50 

.938 

34°       " 

60 

.925 

47°       " 

USE  OF  FARM  TRACTORS 

Gasoline  is  being  used  to  a  greater  extent  each 
year  on  the  farm,  especially  in  tractors  for  plowing, 
cultivating,  planting,  harvesting  and  many  other 
operations.  Tractors  were  of  great  value  in  rapidly 
breaking  up  large  areas  of  prairie  sod  in  the  West, 
but  after  the  sod  was  broken  they  proved  an  un- 
profitable investment  for  the  individual  farmer  in 
many  cases.  A  few  owners  found  the  tractor  a 
profitable  instrument,  doing  its  work  more  satis- 
factorily and  much  cheaper  than  could  be  done  with 
horses,  while  a  great  many  discontinued  its  use  after 
a  trial. 

The  average  life  of  a  tractor,  as  estimated  by 
owners  in  North  Dakota,  is  about  six  years,  while 
the  average  life  as  estimated  by  owners  in  some  other 
states    than    North  Dakota    is   eight  years.      But 


GASOLINE 71 

many  tractors  have  shorter  lives  than  six  years, 
due  no  doubt  to  very  inefficient  operations. 

The  necessity  for  the  operator  of  a  gasoline 
tractor  being  thoroughly  trained  for  his  work,  if 
the  tractor  is  to  prove  a  success,  is  obvious.  Failure 
to  comply  with  this  requirement  has  been  the  cause 
of  many  failures. 

A  new  tractor  recently  developed  by  a  large 
Automobile  Company  is  equipped  with  a  regular 
twenty  horsepower  motor,  and  has  a  frame  con- 
structed of  special  vanadium  steel,  and  weighs 
1,500  pounds,  permitting  of  its  use  over  the  softest 
ground.  Its  average  fuel  consumption  is  one  gallon 
per  hour,  has  a  working  speed  from  two  to  four  miles 
per  hour  and  can  draw  a  heavy  load  on  the  road  at 
twenty  miles  per  hour.  Any  fuel  that  boils  below 
550    F.  can  be  used,  among  them  being  kerosene. 

This  tractor  is  said  to  do  the  work  of  four  horses, 
and  its  initial  cost  and  upkeep  is  much  less.  Its 
advantages  follow:  It  does  not  consume  "food"  or 
fuel  when  not  in  use;  hence,  in  inclement  weather 
and  during  the  winter  months  there  is  no  upkeep 
cost;  it  does  not  overheat  while  at  work,  even  on 
the  hottest  days,  and  unlike  the  horse  it  does  not 
have  to  be  rested  every  half-hour  because  of  exces- 
sive heat;    the  flies  do  not  bother  it;    it  does  not 


72 GASOLINE 

break  out  of  the  pasture  and  get  into  a  corn  field 
and  overeat,  nor  lie  down  and  die;  whenever  the 
driver  leaves  the  tractor  he  is  certain  to  find  it 
standing  where  he  left  it  and  not  engaged  in  eating 
leaves  from  the  hedge  fence,  and,  finally,  the  tractor 
does  not  become  frightened  and  run  away.  These 
are  a  few  of  the  points  in  favor  of  an  efficient  tractor 
from  a  farmer's  viewpoint. 

The  following  contrast  between  the  work  of 
horses  and  this  promised  Ford  tractor  is  of  interest. 

A  DAY'S  WORK 

{  6^  acres  I   Whether 

Two  horses      i  32  quarts  of  oats,  hay  and  bedding  >      work 
(  2  hours'  labor  )    or  idle. 

\   13|  acres  ) 

Ford  tractor    ■<   10  gallons  gasoline  >      ^Yhen  at  work. 
(  1  gallon  of  oil  ) 

Fifty  of  these  tractors  are  at  present  being 
tried  out  under  practical  conditions  as  a  step  pre- 
liminary to  their  wide-spread  exploitation. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
in  Bulletin  719,  summarizes  the  experience  of  nearly 
two  hundred  farmers  in  Illinois  in  using  different 
sized  tractors  on  farms  of  different  acreage  as  follows: 


GASOLINE  73 


"The  chief  advantages  of  the  tractor  for  farm 
work  are:  (1)  Its  ability  to  do  heavy  work  and  do 
it  rapidly,  thus  covering  the  desired  acreage  within 
the  proper  season;  (2)  the  saving  of  man  labor  and 
the  subsequent  doing  away  with  some  hired  help; 
and  (3)  the  ability  to  plow  to  a  good  depth,  especially 
in  hot  weather. 

"The  chief  disadvantages  are  difficulties  of  effi- 
cient operation  and  the  packing  of  the  soil  when  damp. 

"The  purchase  of  a  tractor  seldom  lowers  the 
actual  cost  of  operating  a  farm,  and  its  purchase 
must  usually  be  justified  by  increased  returns.  For 
farms  of  two  hundred  crop  acres  or  less  use  the 
three-plow  tractor. 

"For  farms  of  from  two  hundred  one  to  four 
hundred  fifty  crop  acres,  the  four-plow  tractor, 
with  the  three-plow  outfit  for  second  choice. 

"For  farms  of  from  four  hundred  fifty -one  to 
seven  hundred  fifty  crop  acres  the  four-plow  tractor, 
with  the  three-plow  outfit  for  second  choice. 

"A  farm  of  one  hundred  forty  acres  is  the  small- 
est upon  which  the  smallest  tractor  in  common  use, 
the  two-plcw  outfit,  may  prove  profitable. 

"  Medium -priced  tractors  appear  to  have  proven 
a  profitable  investment  in  a  higher  percentage  of 
cases  than  any  others. 


74  GAS  O  L  I  N  E 


"The  life  of  tractors,  as  estimated  by  their 
owner,  varies  from  six  seasons  for  the  two-plow  to 
ten  and  a  half  seasons  for  the  six-plow  outfits. 

"The  number  of  days  a  tractor  is  used  each 
season  varies  from  forty-nine  for  the  two-plow  to 
seventy  for  the  six-plow  machines. 

"Two  and  one-half  gallons  of  gasoline  and  one- 
fifth  gallon  of  lubricating  oil  are  ordinarily  required 
in  actual  practice  to  plow  one  acre  of  ground  seven 
inches  deep.  The  size  of  the  tractor  has  little 
influence  on  these  qualities. 

"Under  favorable  conditions  a  fourteen-inch 
plow  drawn  by  a  tractor  covers  about  three  acres 
in  an  ordinary  working  day. 

"Plows  drawn  by  tractors  do  somewhat  better 
work  on  the  whole  than  horse-drawn  plows.  In 
Illinois  the  depth  plowed  by  tractors  averages  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  greater  than  where  horses 
are  used. 

"A  tractor  displaces  on  an  average  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  horses  on  the  farm  where  it  is  used. 

"Experienced  tractor  owners  do  not  consider 
even  a  two-plow  outfit  profitable  on  a  farm  less 
than  one  hundred  forty  acres.  The  average  size 
of  a  farm  on  which  two-plow  outfits  are  used  in 
Illinois  is  two  hundred  seventy  acres. 


(x  A  S  0  L  I  N  E 


"The  four-plow  tractor  is  most  recommended 
by  experienced  owners/' 

At  present  tractors  are  passing  through  the 
development  stage,  and  diverse  views  are  held  re- 
garding them.  Many  farmers  would  not  do  with- 
out them.  Others  maintain  they  have  not  reached 
the  stage  where  they  can  efficiently  do  the  work 
done  by  horses.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  they 
have  found  a  place  on  the  farm  in  a  great  many 
cases  and  that  their  usefulness  in  this  respect  will 
steadily  increase. 

USE  OF  GASOLINE  DURING  A  WAR 

The  internal  combustion  engine  is  put  to  many 
uses  in  warfare.  In  fact  without  motor  traffic- 
present  war  on  the  scale  it  has  been  staged  would 
have  been  impossible.  Thousands  of  soldiers  can 
be  moved  many  miles  in  a  few  hours  or  over  night, 
as  the  strategy  of  the  operators  may  demand.  The 
magnificent  roads  of  France  are  still  in  splendid 
condition  despite  the  war,  ?,nd  they  are  used  by 
motor  cars  to  their  utmost  capacity  in  transporting 
troops  from  place  to  place;  in  bringing  up  supplies, 
in  caring  for  the  wounded,  in  swiftly  carrying  dis- 
patches,  and  for  many  other  purposes.  Operations 
that  required  days  in  past  great  wars  can    now  be 


GASOLINE 


conducted  in  hours.  As  a  consequence,  war  has 
lost  much  of  its  former  spectacular  nature,  for 
surprises  are  difficult  to  execute  with  telling  results. 
A  movement  launched  at  any  particular  place  is 
quickly  met  by  the  rapid  transfer  of  sufficient  troops 
to  guard  that  place. 

The  aeroplane  has  been  pressed  into  valuable 
service  and  has  been  developed  as  a  swift,  useful 
and  safe  means  of  locomotion  during  this  war,  to 
a  point  that  otherwise  would  have  required  years 
to  reach.  It  is  justly  called  the  eyes  of  the  army. 
In  getting  accurate  information  of  the  movements 
of  the  enemy,  and  in  other  ways,  it  has  rendered 
valuable  service. 

When  the  Russian  army  rolled  into  Galicia  and 
took  possession  of  the  Austrian  oil  fields,  a  problem 
of  great  importance  confronted  the  Central  powers. 
Namely,  where  to  turn  for  their  gasoline  supply, 
or  benzine  as  it  is  called  in  Germany.  Before  the 
problem  became  very  acute,  however,  the  oil  fields 
were  recaptured  by  the  Central  powers. 

It  might  be  added  that  Germany,  partly  because 
of  economical  necessity,  has  advanced  much  farther 
than  the  United  States  in  the  use  of  alcohol,  benzol, 
kerosene,  and  other  substitutes  for  gasoline. 

According  to  enthusiastic  Germans,  three  factors 


GASOLINE 77 

have  been  largely  responsible  for  the  immediate 
success  of  the  Kaiser's  armies  in  Poland :  VonHinden- 
burg,  big  guns  and  the  automobile. 

In  the  battle  of  Tamenberg  millions  of  German 
troops  had  to  be  transferred  rapidly  from  more 
southerly  points  of  the  frontier  to  the  north.  This 
could  never  have  been  done  without  thousands  of 
automobiles,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  several  lines 
of  railroads,  very  efficient  in  a  military  sense,  run 
parallel  with  the  line  of  forts,  Koenigsberg-Thorn — 
Marienburg.  Likewise,  it  was  due  to  the  auto- 
mobiles that  every  kind  and  quantity  of  artillery 
required  could  be  brought  to  the  battlefield  in  time 
to  defeat  the  Russians.  Of  course  the  automobile 
operations  were  by  no  means  restricted  to  the  pre- 
liminary work  of  the  battle,  but  as  positions  shifted, 
the  motor  equipment  was  always  kept  working 
hard. 

This  was  the  first  demonstration  on  a  large  scale 
of  the  tremendous  military  value  of  the  automobile 
in  war.  The  work  consisting  of  wholesale  move- 
ments of  troops  and  cannon  and  ammunition  was 
repeated  with  relative  modifications  in  the  several 
battles  of  the  campaign  of  the  fall  of  1914.  At  the 
same  time,  motor  cars  enabled  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  troops  to  make  the  best  of  their  strategic 


8  G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


retreat  through  Galieia,  in  the  face  of  Russian 
armies  which  were  in  vast  numerical  superiority. 
It  was  the  unfailing  supply  of  enormous  quantities 
of  munitions  which  made  it  possible  to  hold  the 
Carpathian  passes  against  the  Russians  thrown  into 
them,  regardless  of  losses.  Finally,  automobiles 
constituted,  to  a  large  degree,  the  driving  force 
which  turned  the  Russians  from  the  Carpathians 
and  Galieia  into  Poland,  ending  the  first  and  open- 
ing the  second  great  stage  of  the  eastern  campaign. 

The  second  stage  consisted  largely  of  the  advance, 
sometimes  rapid  and  sometimes  slow,  of  the  united 
Teutons  toward  Warsaw,  and  after  the  conquest 
of  that  city,  to  the  Brest-Litowsk  line.  Most  of 
this  advance  was  made  in  a  country  of  soft  soil, 
very  poor  in  the  way  of  roads,  while  most  of  the 
railroads  were  destroyed  by  the  retreating  Russians 
wherever  they  had  time  to  do  it.  Fortunately  for 
the  invaders,  the  solid  railroad  beds  could  not  be 
destroyed  in  the  short  time  given  to  the  retreating 
enemy,  and  this  made  possible  the  creation  of  an 
"automobile  railroad  system,"  in  which  the  cars 
followed  the  lines  of  the  railroads. 

In  general,  the  hardest  work  for  automobiles  in 
the  east  was  done  during  the  Carpathian  campaign, 
when  the  machines  had  to  plug  through  snow  and 


GASOLINE  79 


mud  several  feet  deep  and  often  had  to  be  raised 
and  got  under  way. 

On  the  western  front,  automobiles  have  also 
found  plenty  to  do.  This  applies  especially  to  the 
fighting  in  Champagne  and  Vosges,  where  the  net 
railroads  are  more  sparse  than  in  Northern  France 
and  Flanders,  and  where  at  times  much  violent 
fighting  took  place.  Several  hills  commanding  the 
surrounding  ground,  such  as  the  well-known  Hart- 
manns-Weilerkopf,  changed  hands  as  often  as  a 
score  of  times  during  the  war,  and  the  party  on 
the  offensive  of  course  had  to  bring  up  troops  and 
fighting  machines  under  cover.  In  more  than  one 
case,  all  the  fighting  against  the  forces  on  such  a 
hill  was  in  vain,  until  the  supply  of  heavy  ammuni- 
tion was  cut  off  from  them,  when  the  position  was 
carried  by  storm.  In  some  of  these  stornis,  armored 
cars  with  small  calibre  guns  participated,  and,  in 
spite  of  the  obvious  difficulties  of  such  a  hill-climb, 
rendered  good  service. 

One  might  even  say  that  Germany  succeeded 
where  motor  cars  could  operate  and' did  not  succeed 
where  they  failed.  Wherever  there  was  a  possi- 
bility of  quickly  attaining  a  position  required  and 
suitable  for  effective  attack,  this  possibility  was 
realized  through  the  work  of  the  automobile.     It 


80  G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


was  the  alliance  with  the  automobile  which  made 
the  30.5  and  42  centimeter,  guns  as  effective  as  they 
proved  at  the  sieges  of  Liege,  Antwerp,  Mareberge,  etc. 
There  is  an  impression  that  automobile  driving 
is  one  of  the  soft  jobs  of  the  war,  but  most  motorists 
will  say  that  they  would  rather  be  serving  in  trenches 
than  at  the  wheel  of  a  truck.  In  the  battle  of 
Champagne  the  number  of  shells  that  had  to  be 
fired  by  each  gun  prior  to  the  infantry  attack  was 
prodigious.  Thousands  of  trucks  were  running  day 
and  night,  taking  shells  right  up  to  the  gun  positions, 
for  the  old  method  of  transferring  to  horse  teams 
has  long  been  abandoned.  Generally  the  guns  are 
in  positions  away  frcm  the  main  roads,  but  special 
tracks  are  made  so  that  the  automobile  can  go  right 
up  to  them.  The  ammunition  is  unloaded  and 
placed  in  underground  shelters  within  easy  reach 
of  the  battery.  Naturally  the  enemy  keeps  a  close 
watch  for  the  ammunition  columns  and  shells  them 
whenever  possible.  If  an  enemy's  shell  strikes  an 
ammunition  truck,  there  is  not  much  left  of  either 
truck  or  men.     • 

AIRCRAFT  INDISPENSABLE  IN  WARFARE 

The  first  six  weeks  of  the  great  European   \\a» 
demonstrated    beyond    doubt    to    the     participants 


GASOLINE  81 


the  value  of  aircraft.  Aircraft  in  warfare  unlocks 
the  door  to  the  secrets  of  war  strategy  and  shows 
the  movement  of  troops,  cannons,  warships,  etc., 
of  both  sides  in  the  fray. 

The  movements  of  large  bodies  on  land  and  of 
ships  on  the  seas  lying  near  the  scene  of  hostilities 
have  been  apparent  to  the  enemy.  Furthermore, 
while  aircraft  in  this,  its  infant  stage,  and  without 
previous  big  war  experience,  has  actually  proved 
itself  the  eye  of  the  army  and  navy,  it  has  gone 
further  and  proved  that  it  also  has  a  very  offensive 
kick  of  its  own  in  the  shape  of  bomb  dropping  from 
both  aeroplanes  and  dirigibles.  The  severity  of 
this  kick  is  only  limited  by  the  scarcity  in  numbers 
of  aeroplanes  and  dirigibles.  Multiply  the  number 
of  aircraft  by  one  thousand  and  its  kick  would  then 
become  an  exterminator. 

During  the  march  through  Belgium  and  to  the 
very  gates  of  Paris  by  the  German  army,  it  was 
aircraft  that  showed  the  Germans  just  when  and 
where  to  strike  the  most  effective  blows.  While 
on  the  other  hand  it  showed  the  smaller  forces  of 
the  Allies  just  when  it  was  necessary  to  retreat  in 
order  to  avoid  capture  or  annihilation,  and  just  the 
reverse  order  of  things  when  the  Germans  retreated 
from  Paris. 


82  GASOLINE 


Aircraft  has  shown  the  British  admiralty  the 
location  of  German  battleships  behind  the  great 
Heligoland  stronghold,  and  aircraft  has  also  shown 
the  German  naval  officers  where  British  war  vessels 
are  stationed.  Each  knows  the  other's  principal 
positions,  movements  and  strength,  and  it  is  a 
matter  of  the  smaller  force  backing  away  from  the 
larger  force. 

Aircraft  is  also  utilized  to  hover  over  enemy's 
forces  while  in  battle,  and  signal  the  gunners  upon 
the  ground  the  exact  position  and  range  for  artillery 
fire,  and  through  this  method  alone  more  than  one 
battle  was  decided  by  the  forces  employing  it  to  the 
best  advantage. 

It  is  also  true  that,  just  as  aircraft  have  developed, 
means  of  combatting  them  have  strengthened. 
Aerial  guns  are  an  important  part  of  the  defense 
against  air  raiders.  These  shoot  so  high  and  accu- 
rately that  often  airmen  have  to  travel  so  high  that 
they  cannot  discern  objects  or  movements  on  the 
ground  with  clearness. 

LUBRICATING  OILS  FOR  MOTORS 

An  automobile  practically  runs  on  oil,  that  is, 
between  every  journal  or  shaft  and  its  bearing  there 
is  a  thin  film  of  oil,   keeping  these  parts  separated. 


GASOLINE  83 


In  order  to  perform  ii  s  work  to  the  best  advantage, 
lubricating  oil  must  possess  several  necessary  requi- 
sites : 

(1)  It  must  lubricate  the  piston  efficiently  at 
the  temperature  encountered  in  the  cylinder. 

(2)  It  must  give  a  good  seal  to  the  piston  and 
rings,  keeping  them  tight  and  preventing  leakage 
of  oil  and  condensed  gasoline  past  them. 

(3)  It  should  be  adhesive,  i.e.,  possess  the 
property  of  sticking  to  the  surface  to  be  lubricated. 

(4)  It  should  be  as  far  as  possible  unchange- 
able, i.e.,  the  supply  should  be  renewed  with  oil 
of  the  same  character  if  desired,  and  upon  standing 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  should  remain  the 
same. 

(5)  It  should  be  free  of  acids  and  in  other  ways 
pure. 

(6)  It  must  burn  without  forming  too  much 
carbon  deposit  in  the  cylinder. 

Only  the  best  grade  of  oil  should  be  used  to 
lubricate  the  internal  combustion  motor,  and  the 
viscosity  or  body  required  will  depend  upon  indi- 
vidual requirements  of  the  power  plant.  Some 
engines  have  very  closely-fitting  pistons  and  rings 
and  tightly-adjusted  bearings,   which    means    that 


84  GASOLINE 


a  light-bodied  oil  must  be  used  in  order  to  form  a 
film  between  the  closely-filting  parts.  Other  en- 
gines will  operate  better  on  medium-grade  'oils; 
while  an  engine  that  has  been  run  for  a  time  so  that 
the  working  parts  have  been  freed  up  will  require 
heavier-bodied  oils  in  order  to  cushion  the  shock 
between  worn  parts. 

Greases  adulterated  with  animal  fats  to  give 
them  more  body  are  unsuited  for  lubricating  motor 
vehicle  parts,  because  they  become  rancid  after  they 
have  been  used  for  a  time,  and  they  liberate  fatty 
acids  that  will  injure  the  finished  surfaces  of  the 
gears  and  anti-friction  bearings.  Greases  of  this 
nature  gum  up  very  easily  and  as  they  harden  the 
revolving  gears  will  cut  paths  in  which  they  turn, 
and  no  lubricant  is  supplied  to  the  gear  teeth  though 
the  transmission  case  may  be  half  full  of  the  solidified 
grease. 

Some  makers  advertise  greases  that  are  guaran- 
teed to  silence  noisy  gear  sets.  These  contain  par- 
ticles of  cork  or  shredded  wood  designed  to  fill  the 
space  between  the  worn  gear  teeth  and  cushion  the 
shock  that  oil  or  grease  would  not  be  capable  of 
doing  by  itself.  These  greases  should  never  be 
employed  in  gear  sets  if  efficient  operation  is  desired, 
because  they  not  only  interpose  an  item  of  serious 


GASOLINE  85 


frictional  resistance  and  consume  power,  but  arc 
also  entirely  unsuited  for  the  anti-friction  hall  or 
roller  bearings  used  to  support  practically  all  change 
speed  gear  shafts. 

With  the  water  boiling  in  the  jackets  the  tem- 
perature of  the  inner  surface  of  the  cylinder  walls 
will  be  about  265°  F.  The  temperature  of  the  layer 
of  oil  that  is  in  immediate  contact  with  the  cylinder 
walls,  which  is  the  part  that  regulates  the  friction, 
cannot  be  much  higher  than  this.  There  are  prob- 
ably no  motor  oils  that  have  a  flash  point  lower  than 
325°  F.  If  the  temperature  of  the  cylinder  walls 
gets  up  as  high  as  this  in  a  water-cooled  motor 
there  is  something  radically  wrong,  and  the  remedy 
is  not  to  get  another  oil  of  higher  flash  point,  but 
to  locate  the  trouble  and  remove  it. 

It  is  an  old  theory,  never  founded  on  solid  facts, 
that  a  high  flash  point  is  a  necessity  in  a  motor  oil, 
or  that  the  oil  burns  up  without  giving  sufficient 
lubrication.  The  point  is  overlooked  that,  when 
one  has  a  maximum  explosion  temperature  of  gases 
in  a  cylinder  of  about  2700°  F.,  and  an  average 
temperature  of  950°  F.,  an  oil  with  a  flash  point 
of  450°  F.  will  offer  little  more  resistance  to  burning 
than  one  of  300°  F.  would. 

Either  oil  will  burn  if  kept  for  any  length  of  time 


86  GASOLINE 


in  contact  with  the  hot  gas.  Lubricating  oil  does 
not  burn  very  easily  or  very  fast,  however,  and  the 
time  given  it  to  burn  in  a  motor  cylinder  is  very 
short. 

No  rigid  directions  can  be  given  for  the  choice 
of  oils  for  given  purposes.  It  is  best  to  try  various 
lubricants  which  can  be  purchased  for  any  one 
lubricating  problem  until  one  is  found  that  gives 
satisfactory  results. 

Lubricating  oils  are  separated  from  crude  oil  by 
distillation,  after  the  gasoline,  naphtha,  kerosene, 
etc.,  have  been  separated.  After  the  lubrication 
portions  of  the  oil  have  been  separated,  they  are 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  water  and  alkali,  and 
blown  with  air  to  purify  them.  In  some  cases  they 
are  filtered  to  decolorize  them,  that  is,  to  bring  them 
up  to  certain  standards  of  color  required  by  the 
trade.  Fuller's  earth  is  generally  used  as  the  filter- 
ing medium. 

A  number  of  tests  have  been  devised  to  determine 
the  suitability  of  lubricating  oils  for  the  trade. 
These  are  the  heat,  flash,  gravity,  viscosity,  cold 
and  carbon  residue  tests. 

Heat  Test 

If  a  small  vessel  of  good  oil  is  slowly  heated  over 


GASOLINE  87 


an  open  flame  until  yellow  vapors  appear  above 
the  surface  of  the  oil,  kept  at  the  temperature  for 
fifteen  minutes,  and  then  allowed  to  stand,  it  will 
darken  in  color,  but  remain  perfectly  clear  and 
without  sediment  even  after  twenty-four  hours. 
Impure  oil  turns  black,  and  after  about  twenty-four 
hours  a  black  carbon-like  sediment  settles  out,  due 
to  the  presence  of  sulphur  compounds. 

This  simple  test  is  unfailing  and  very  valuable 
to  show  oil  purchasers  something  about  the  quality 
of  the  oil  they  are  buying. 

Flash  Test 

The  flash  test  shows  at  what  temperature  the 
vapors  coming  off  the  oil,  when  heated,  will  flash 
or  ignite  and  go  out  again  when  a  small  flame  is 
brought  within  one-fourth  inch  of  the  surface  of 
the  oil  in  the  test  cup. 

The  flash  point  of  an  oil  makes  little  difference 
as  regards  its  presence  in  the  explosion  chamber  of 
a  motor,  because  explosion  temperatures  are  away 
above  flash  temperatures  of  any  oil.  But  for  use 
below  the  piston  the  flash  temperature  should  be 
as  high  as  is  consistent  with  other  necessary  requi- 
sites of  the  oil.  Motor  oils  that  flash  below  400°  F. 
show  a  very  appreciable  loss  by  evaporation;  hence, 


88  GASOLINE 


the  oi]  loses  its  viscosity,  and  has  to  be  more  fre- 
quently renewed. 

Fire  Test 

The  fire  test  shows  at  what  temperature  the  oil 
itself  will  ignite  from  the  flashing  vapor  when  ex- 
posed to  a  small  flame.  In  motor  oils  the  fire  test 
is  from  50°  to  70°  above  the  flash  test. 

Specific  Gravity  Test 

The  specific  gravity  or  "Gravity"  test  shows  the 
density  of  the  oil  or  weight.  It  is  most  simply  made 
by  immersing  a  hydrometer  in  the  oil  and  noting 
the  position  to  which  the  hydrometer  sinks,  as 
marked  on  the  stem  of  the  latter.  Motor  oils  made 
from  Pennsylvania  crude  run  about  30°  to  33°  Be. 
gravity.  Western  lubricating  oils  frequently  run 
lower  than  this. 

Viscosity  Test 

The  viscosity,  or  viscous  nature  or  rate  at  which 
an  oil  will  flow,  is  a  factor  of  much  importance. 
During  cold  weather  an  oil  will  flow  more  slowly 
than  during  hot  weather,  and  at  the  higher  tempera- 
ture of  the  working  parts  of  a  motor  the  difference 
is  very  great. 


GASOLINE  89 


A  lubricant  is  actually  used  to  keep  a  shaft  or 
journal  and  its  bearing  apart,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  journal  really  revolves  on  a  sheet  of  lubricant. 
Hence,  the  ease  with  which  the  particles  of  oil  slide 
over  one  another  (the  viscosity  of  the  oil)  determines 
to  a  certain  extent  the  loss  of  the  oil  when  it  is 
exposed  to  friction  in  the  bearing. 

The  test  is  made  by  noting  the  number  of  seconds 
required  for  a  definite  volume  of  oil  under  an  arbi- 
trary head  to  flow  through  a  standardized  aperture 
at  a  constant  temperature.  Readings  are  com- 
monly taken  at  100°  to  212°  F. 

The  viscosity  is  usually  spoken  of  in  terms  of 
seconds.  This  is  the  flowing  time  under  the  con- 
ditions given  above. 

More  or  less  disagreement  of  results  follows  by 
using  different  instruments;  hence,  it  is  customary 
to  state  the  name  of  the  instrument  used.  One  of 
the  most  commonly  used  viscosimeters  is  called 
the  Saybolt.  An  apparatus  used  in  Germany  and 
coming  into  use  in  this  country  is  called  the  Engler. 

When  oils  lighter  than  one  hundred  eighty 
seconds  are  used  in  motor  bearings,  the  horsepower 
falls  until  they  finally  seize  or  bind  with  oil  of  ap- 
proximately one  hundred  seconds.  Oil  of  about 
one   hundred   eighty   seconds   gives   the    maximum 


90 GASOLINE 

horsepower  obtainable.  Between  eight  hundred  and 
twenty-three  hundred  seconds  there  is  little  differ- 
ence. Light  and  medium  oils  varying  between 
one  hundred  eighty  and  three  hundred  seconds  are 
commonly  specified. 

Cold  Test 

The  temperature  at  which  oil  congeals  or  fails 
to  pour  is  called  the  cold  test. 

This  test  is  in  no  way  indicative  of  the  lubricat- 
ing or  heat-resisting  qualities  of  an  oil. 

Oils  that  flow  at  temperatures  greater  than 
twenty  to  twenty -five  degrees  above  zero  meet  all 
practical  requirements,  as  the  oil  supply  must  be 
kept  in  a  warm  place,  and  the  heat  of  an  engine, 
the  instant  it  is  started,  is  enough  to  keep  oil  in 
the  crank  case  or  lubricator  warm  enough  to  flow, 
no  matter  what  the  temperature  cut  side  may  be. 
Lubricating  oils  of  asphaltic  base,  i.e.,  oils  made 
from  western  crudes,  are  the  only  ones  that  will 
flow  around  zero  temperature. 

Carbon  Residue  Test 

A  certain  amount  of  carbon  in  all  motor  oil  can 
be  "fixed"  by  distilling  a  given  quantity  in  a  stand- 
ard flask,  and  at  a  uniform  rate  twenty-five  cubic 


GASOLINE  91 


centimeters  distilled  at  the  rate  of  one  drop  per 
second.  A  coating  of  carbon  will  remain  on  the 
walls  of  the  flask,  which  is  weighed  to  determine 
its  percentage.  This  "fixed"  carbon  is  termed 
carbon  residue,  and  must  not  be  confused  with 
carbon  deposit.  It  frequently  happens,  however, 
that  a  large  amount  of  carbon  residue  as  determined 
by  the  above  test  means  trouble  in  the  gas  engine 
from  carbon  deposit.  This  is  not  invariably  the 
case,  however. 

The  color  alone  is  no  indication  of  the  quality 
of  an  oil  for  motor  lubrication  or  of  the  amount 
of  carbon  it  contains,  some  of  the  lightest  colored 
oils  often  containing  the  most  carbon.  Oils  may 
be  made  light  in  color  by  filtering  them  through 
bone-black.  If  filtering  is  continued  long  enough, 
a  clear  white  oil  will  be  obtained.  Filtering  removes 
the  carbon  and  impurities  from  the  oil,  and  in  doing 
this  raises  the  gravity  and  viscosity  of  the  oil. 

Dealers  sometimes  increase  the  viscosity  of  oil 
by  adding  a  material  known  as  oil  pulp  or  thickener. 
This  is  really  oleate  of  aluminum,  and  while  it 
brings  up  the  viscosity,  it  does  not  give  the  greasiness 
expected.  At  ordinary  temperatures  a  very  small 
quantity  of  this  material  will  enormously  increase 
the  viscosity. 


92  GASOLINE 


Service  Tests 

Some  good  information  regarding  an  oil  may 
be  obtained  by  observing  the  oil  after  it  has  been 
used  in  a  motor. 

When  a  motor  has  been  run  for  a  few  hours  with 
a  filtered  oil  of  the  highest  quality,  and  a  sample 
taken  for  examination,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  oil 
has  changed  from  its  original  yellow  to  a  grayish- 
blue  by  reflected  light  (not  direct  rays  from  the 
sun).  Finally,  after  several  days  running,  the  oil 
will  turn  completely  black  and  opaque.  A  sample 
of  it  drained  from  the  motor  into  a  long  narrow 
tube  and  allowed  to  stand  twenty -four  hours  will 
show  a  black  sediment  at  the  bottom. 

Let  a  poor  oil  be  run  in  the  same  motor  under 
like  conditions,  and  a  sample  examined,  at  the  end 
of  a  few  minutes  the  oil  will  turn  to  a  dense  and 
lustrous  black  and  a  large  amount  of  sediment  will 
form,  several  times  greater  than  the  sediment  from 
the  good  oil. 

The  amount  of  mileage  to  be  derived  from  a 
particular  oil  is  largely  dependent  upon  mechanical 
constitution  of  the  motor.  Tight  piston  rings, 
large  centrifugal  rings  on  the  crankshaft  where 
it  passes  through  the  case,  ample  cooling  fins  in 
the  pistons,  vents  between  the  crank  case  chamber 


GASOLINE  93 


and  the  valve  enclosures,  etc.,  make  for  large  mile- 
age per  gallon  of  oil,  in  some  cases  as  much  as 
one  thousand  miles. 

No  lubricating  oil  exists  that  will  not  undergo 
a  chemical  and  physical  change  when  exposed  to 
the  high  temperatures  on  both  sides  of  the  piston 
on  automobile  motors,  and  that  will  not  deposit 
sediment  in  the  crank  case,  but  a  very  marked 
difference  is  noted  between  good  oil  and  poor  oil, 
as  regards  the  quantity  of  this  sediment. 

LUBRICATING  POINTERS 

A  very  comprehensive  lubricating  schedule  has 
been  prepared  by  engineers  of  a  prominent  motor 
car  company  for  users  of  their  product,  and,  as  this 
gives  very  definite  instructions  regarding  the  lubri- 
cation of  various  chassis  parts,  it  is  also  presented  for 
the  reader's  information,  as  much  of  the  advice  can 
be  applied  with  equal  advantage  to  other  motor  cars. 

Every  Day  Car  is  in  Use,  or  Every  150  Miles 

With  Cylinder  Oil: 

Steering  knuckle  bolt  oilers    Fill 

With  graphite  grease: 

Motor  clutch  shifter  bearing  sleeve 

grease  cup Two  complete  turns 


94  GASOLINE 


Motor   clutch   shifter  shaft   grease 

cup One  complete  turn 

Steering  connecting  rod  and  cross 

tube  grease  cups One  complete  turn 

Spring  bolt  grease  cups One  complete  turn 

Every  Week,  or  Every  300  Miles 

With  cylinder  oil: 

Motor  starting  crank  bearing    ....  Eight  or  ten  drops 

Shock  absorber  bearing  studs    ....  Thoroughly 

Rear  axle  truss   rod   forward   con- 
nection    Thoroughly 

Rear  axle  brace  oilers Thoroughly 

With  graphite  grease: 

Motor  fan-bearing  grease  cup Two  complete  turns 

Rear   axle    outside    bearing    grease 

cups One  complete  turn 

Twice  a  Month,  or  Every  500  Miles 

With  cylinder  oil: 

Motor  generator  oil  holes Ten  drops 

Spark  and  throttle  adjusting  clevis 

joints Thoroughly 

Motor  accelerator  pedal  joints    ...  Thoroughly 

All  brake  adjusting  clevises    Thoroughly 

External  and  internal  brake  fittings 

and  connections    Thoroughly 

Hand  brake  can  oiler     Thoroughly 

Hand  brake  lever  ratchet Thoroughly 

Foot  brake  pedal  bearing Thoroughly 


GASOLINE 95 

With  graphite  grease: 

Motor  clutch  pedal  shaft  grease  cup     One  complete  turn 

Steering  gear  case   grease  cups.  .  .  .      Two  complete  turns 
With  cylinder  oil  and  kerosene: 

Change  speed  lever  shaft  bearings.  .      Thoroughly 

Intermediate  brake  lever  shaft  and 

connections Thoroughly 

With  vaseline: 

Motor  generator  grease  tube. 

Every  Month,  or  Every  1,000  Miles 

With  cylinder  oil: 

Change  speed  reversing  bell  crank 
oiler    Fill 

Crank  case    Drain    off   dirty    oil, 

flush  with  kerosene 
and  fill  to  pet-cock 
level 

Magneto-bearing  oil  wells    Few  drops 

Motor  front  gear  compartment  .  .  .      Drain  thoroughly 
With  graphite  grease: 

Front  wheel  bearings Clean  with  kerosene 

and  repack 

Motor  generator  and  magneto  shaft 

universal  joints Oil  thoroughly 

Rear  universal  joint    Remove  grease  hole 

plug  and  fill  with 
grease  again 

Front  wheel  hub  caps Pack 

Motor  water  pump  shaft  universal 

joints Thoroughly 


96 GASOLINE 

With  gasoline: 

Motor  carburetor  air  valve  stem    ..      Clean  thoroughly. 

Do  not  oil 
With  transmission  oil: 

Front  universal  joint Drain       thoroughly, 

(half  cylinder  oil  and  half  trans-       flush    with    kerosene 
mission  oil  in  cold  weather).  and   fill   to   pel-cock 

level 

Rear  axle  case    Drain       thoroughly, 

(half  cylinder  oil  and  half  trans-       flush    with    kerosene 
mission  oil  in  cold  weather).  and  fill  to  level  of  2 

brass  plugs  in  under 
side  of  housing 

Rear  axle  transmission  case Drain       thoroughly, 

flush  with  kerosene 
and  fill  to  level  of 
button-head  screw  in 
front  cover 

Once  a  Season 

With  graphite  grease: 

Spring  leaves  Jack  up  frame  to  sep- 
arate leaves,  clean 
and  lubricate  thor- 
oughly. Repeat 
whenever  springs 
squeak 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  K 07 

USE  OF  GASOLINE  AS  A  CLEANING  FLUID 

Gasoline,  or  benzine  or  naphtha,  as  it  is  more 
commonly  called  by  those  who  use  it  as  a  cleaning 
fluid,  is  consumed  in  enormous  quantities  in  thou- 
sands of  cleaning  establishments  in  the  United  States 
and  other  countries  for  cleaning  fabrics. 

The  foundation  of  this  wide-spread'  usage  of 
gasoline  was  laid  in  1866  by  a  Frenchman,  M. 
Judlin,  who  discovered  the  cleaning  powers  of  ben- 
zine. The  success  of  the  method  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  alters  neither  the  fit  of  the  garments  nor 
does  it  spoil  the  most  delicate  fabrics,  while  washing 
with  soap  not  uncommonly  affects  one  or  both  of 
them,  so  that  other  processes  are  often  required 
after  soap  washing.  This  is  not  necessary  after 
benzine  cleaning.  The  cleaning  of  garments  is  thus 
simple  and  rapid,  and  in  addition  most  of  the  ben- 
zine can  be. recovered  for  use  again. 

The  phrase  "dry  cleaning"  originated  from  the 
fact  that  no  water  is  used  in  the  process.  In  reality, 
the  garments  are  immersed  and  washed  in  benzine 
or  some  other  solvent.  Thus  the  term  "dry  clean- 
ing" is  a  misnomer,  and  the  real  definition  of  dry 
or  chemical  cleaning,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is 
immersion  in  a  liquid  which  dissolves  fat.     Briefly 


98  GASOLINE 


stated,  dry  cleaning  is  based  upon  the  solvent  power 
of  benzine  and  other  solvents  for  grease.  Most 
stains  in  garments  consist  of  dirt  held  by  grease  of 
various  kinds  collected  during  the  wearing  of  clothes. 
By  removing  the  grease  (the  dirt-carrying  vehicle) 
the  dirt  is  released  and  the  stain  disappears.  As 
compared  .to  the  older  methods  of  cleaning,  this 
process  has  great  advantages.  The  possibility  of 
shrinkage  of  woolens,  almost  unavoidable  in  the 
water- washing  treatment,  is  entirely  excluded. 
Furthermore,  the  most  delicate  fabrics  are  not 
affected  or  in  the  least  injured,  and  richly-trimmed 
ladies'  gowns  can  be  cleaned  without  the  necessity 
of  ripping  off  any  portion  or  removing  the  trim- 
mings. The  padding  of  men's  coats  is  not  shifted, 
and  many  household  articles,  which  would  be  ren- 
dered useless  by  ordinary  methods  of  cleaning,  may 
by  this  process  be  restored  to  their  original  cleanli- 
ness. In  addition,  the  expense  of  ripping  apart  and 
resewing  is  avoided. 

As  solvent  for  oils  and  greases,  benzine  is  not 
excelled.  The  principal  requisites  of  the  benzine 
are  that  it  should  be  readily  expelled  from  the  gar- 
ments by  evaporation  after  the  immersion,  sponging 
or  washing  process  is  over,  it  should  be  free  from 
odoriferous  substances  and  that   it   should   not    be 


GASOLINE  99 


too  volatile  in  character,  because  then  the  loss  by 
evaporation  would  be  too  great. 

Under  the  name  of  "benzine  soaps"  are  various 
products  on  the  market  that  are  much  used  and 
that  form  an  important  item  of  the  dry  cleaners' 
outfit.  In  this  form  (dissolved  in  soap)  the  use  of 
benzine  is  extended  to  the  cleaning  of  garments 
dirty  from  ordinary  dust  or  dirt  upon  which  benzine 
by  itself  has  no  effect. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  and  several 
kinds  of  apparatus  for  carrying  out  the  actual 
process  of  dry  cleaning  according  to  whether  the 
work  is  to  be  done  on  a  large  or  small  scale,  but  the 
principle  is  the  same  in  all  cases. 

First,  as  much  dust  as  is  possible  is  beaten  or 
shaken  out  of  the  garments.  Next,  they  are  thor- 
oughly brushed,  especially  pockets,  and  then  dried 
to  remove  all  moisture.  This  is  very  important, 
as  the  presence  of  moisture  prevents  the  benzine 
from  acting.  Water  forms  damp  places  in  the 
goods.  These  places  retain  their  own  dirt  and 
absorb  dirt  from  their  immediate  neighborhood, 
and  the  dirt  in  them  is  effectually  protected  from 
the  benzine.  Hence,  garments  must  be,  by  all 
means,  free  from  moisture  before  they  are  dry 
cleaned.     Finally,  the  goods  are  treated  by  benzine. 


100  GASOLINE 


In  small  dry-cleaning  establishments  a  number 
of  vessels  (up  to  five)  are  used  for  the  convenient 
handling  of  goods  to  be  cleaned.  These  vessels  of 
sheet  zinc,  sheet  copper  or  stoneware  are  filled 
about  three-fourths  full  with  benzine  and  fitted  with 
tight-fitting  lids.  The  articles  to  be  cleaned  are 
sorted,  the  light  from  the  dark,  all  of  them  spread 
out  and  the  worst  stains  removed  with  a  piece  of 
wadding  the  size  of  a  fist.  This  piece  of  wadding, 
called  a  "tampon,"  is  tied  into  a  piece  of  white 
linen,  so  the  corners  of  the  latter  can  be  used  as  a 
handle. 

The  tampon  is  dipped  into  the  benzine  in  a 
dish  until  it  is  thoroughly  saturated,  and  dirty 
places  of  fabric  vigorously  rubbed  until  the  greater 
portion  of  the  dirt  is  removed.  All  of  the  articles 
are  proceeded  with  in  the  same  manner,  the  darker 
being  taken  last,  because  by  repeatedly  dipping 
the  tampon  into  the  benzine  the  latter  acquires  a 
darker  color. 

The  benzine  remaining  after  the  operation  is 
finished  is  poured  into  a  large  vessel,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  well-fitting  lid.  Then  the  articles 
treated  with  the  tampon  are  washed,  one  after 
the  other,  in  the  first  vessel  of  benzine.  Next,  they 
are  washed  in  the  second  benzine  vessel,  and  so  on. 


GASOLINE UH 

The  changing  of  articles  from  one  vessel  to 
another  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  always  bringing 
the  first  lot,  that  is,  the  white  pieces,  in  contact 
with  unused  benzine,  the  latter  becoming  constantly 
darker  by  washing  the  articles.  The  articles  first 
treated  are  finally  washed  in  pure  benzine  and 
spread  upon  a  table  and  examined.  If  dirty 
places  are  still  found,  the  articles  are  rubbed  with 
a  clean  tampon  and  again  placed  in  pure  benzine. 
From  the  latter  they  are  thrown  into  a  vessel  pro- 
vided with  a  lid,  in  which  the  adhering  benzine 
drains.  This  benzine  is  removed  from  time  to 
time.  The  articles  are  finally  wrung  by  passing 
them  between  the  rolls  of  a  wringer  or,  better,  the 
benzine  is  removed  by  means  of  a  centrifuge.  The 
articles  are  then  dried  in  quite  hot,  closed,  drying 
chambers  provided  with  contrivances  for  the  escape 
and  condensation  of  the  benzine  vapors.  By  this 
treatment,  the  articles  are  thoroughly  cleaned  as 
far  as  it  can  be  done  with  benzine.  It  must  be 
added,  however,  that  all  stains  produced  by  alkalies, 
acids,  sugar,  milk,  etc.,  resist  the  action  of  benzine. 
The  same  is  also  the  case  with  so-called  sweet  stains, 
which  are  caused  by  a  change  in  the  color.  To 
remove  such  stains,  the  separate  pieces  must  be 
subjected  to  special  treatment. 


102  GASOLINE 


The  method  above  described  is  practised  on  a 
small  scale.  For  working  on  a  larger  scale,  a  number 
of  good  machines  are  required,  namely,  a  benzine- 
washing  machine,  an  extractor,  a  cleaning  table, 
a  tank  or  tub  for  rinsing  and  a  couple  of  cylindrical 
tanks  of  zinc. 

The  cleaning  of  all  kinds  of  fabrics  has  developed 
to  the  extent  that  special  treatment  with  benzine 
is  given  many  articles  for  the  best  results.  White 
woolen  and  silk  goods  are  brushed  over  first  with  a 
weak  solution  of  benzine  soap  in  benzine  and  run 
for  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  in  the  benzine  washer. 
This  is  done  on  account  of  the  greater  danger  from 
explosion.  Colored  silks,  when  very  dirty  and 
stained,  cannot  be  completely  cleaned  by  the  dry 
process,  but  must  be  followed  by  wet  cleaning. 
One  of  the  many  points  to  be  observed  in  dry  clean- 
ing is  that  red  stripes,  interwoven  in  ladies'  waists, 
usually  give  up  their  dye  to  benzine,  whereby  not 
only  the  silks  but  everything  else  in  the  washer  is 
ruined.  Waistbands  containing  such  stripes  must 
always  be  removed. 

A  special  technique  has  developed  to  properly 
clean  and  renovate  real  velvet  goods,  carpets,  etc. 

Benzine,  after  use,  can  be  purified  by  filtering 
it  through  sand,  charcoal  and  flannel,  by  treating 


GASOLINE  1 03 


it  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (J  to  J  per  cent)  and 
allowing  it  to  stand  quietly  for  twenty-four  to 
twenty-six  hours,  but  best  of  all  by  distilling  it. 
In  proper  hands,  the  distillation  is  not  only  safe, 
but  it  wastes  less  of  the  benzine  than  any  other 
purification  process.  In  addition,  no  acid  is  left 
in  the  benzine,  as  is  the  case  with  the  sulphuric 
acid  treatment,  and  the  benzine  is  recovered  in  a 
perfectly  pure  and  colorless  condition. 

USE  OF  GASOLINE  IN  THE  PAINT  AND 
RUBBER  INDUSTRIES 

Gasoline  or  benzine,  as  it  is  called  in  the  paint 
industry,  is  used  extensively  in  paint  manufacture 
as  a  solvent.  The  amount  of  benzine  permissible 
in  a  paint  depends  entirely  upon  the  paint.  A 
thick,  viscous,  ropy  paint  which  is  so  difficult  to 
apply  that  it  will  not  flow  evenly  is  undoubtedly 
improved  by  the  addition  of  benzine.  In  such 
cases,  kerosene  and  turpentine  can  also  be  used, 
but  in  the  cases  of  a  dipping  paint  where  the  even 
spreading  of  a  linseed  oil  paint  is  desirable,  and  the 
sudden  evaporation  of  the  solvent  helps  to  produce 
a  uniform  coat,  benzine  cannot  be  replaced  by  any 
other  solvent. 

Some  have  argued  that  benzine  is  of  no  value 


104  GASOLINE 


in  a  structural  iron  paint  for  the  reason  that  its 
rapidity  of  evaporation  lowers  the  dew  point,  be- 
cause moisture  is  deposited  as  it  evaporates.  This 
is  fallacious.  Turpentine  will  do  exactly  the  same 
thing,  as  will  any  other  solvent  depending  entirely 
upon  the  hydroscopic  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 
If  painting  be  done  in  an  atmosphere  where  the 
humidity  is  high  and  the  temperature  near  the  dew 
point,  it  makes  very  little  difference  what  solvents 
are  used,  the  condensation  being  apparent  in  any 
case.  A  great  advantage  is  to  be  obtained  by  the 
moderate  use  of  benzine,  for  in  brushing  on  a  quick- 
drying  paint  containing  benzine  the  evaporation 
carries  with  it  much  of  the  moisture  in  the  paint. 

A  number  of  excellent  brands  of  benzine  have 
been  placed  on  the  market  as  substitutes  for  tur- 
pentine, all  of  which  are  equal  in  physical  charac- 
teristics to  pure  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Turpentine  is  a  better  solvent  for  son  e  of  the 
mixing  varnishes  and  fossil  and  se  ni-iossil  resin 
driers  than  benzine,  but  certain  petroleum  or  paraf- 
fin compounds,  some  of  which  have  had  marked 
success,  are  absolutely  identical  in  solvent  power, 
speed  of  evaporation  and  viscosity  to  turpentine. 

The  method  by  which  these  benzine  compounds 
are  made  consists  in  passing  certain  paraffin  oils 


GASOLINE  105 


over  red-hot  coke  in  conjunction  with  wood  tur- 
pentine. The  product  which  is  obtained  has  little 
or  no  odor.  Thick  or  viscous  paints,  particularly 
the  varnish  and  enamel  paints,  are  so  much  im- 
proved by  the  addition  of  these  materials  that  even 
an  inexperienced  painter  will  notice  the  free-flowing 
qualities  of  the  material  to  which  these  dilutents 
have  been  added.  The  petroleum  products  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  paints  are  principally  62°  B. 
benzine.  Some  of  the  gasolines  ranging  from  71° 
to  88°  are  used,  but  these  are  so  light  and  bring 
so  much  higher  price  than  the  62°  that  they  sre 
not  used  as  much. 

The  grades,  however,  wdiich  approach  turpen- 
tine in  physical  characteristics,  must  be  counted 
on  as  an  important  factor  in  paint  on  account  of 
the  extremely  high  price  of  turpentine,  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  held  in  a  few  hands.  After  all,  any  solvent, 
whether  it  be  benzine,  turpentine,  naphtha,  benzol 
or  acetone,  is  nothing  but  a  solvent  and  evaporates 
completely,  leaving  the  other  vehicles  to  protect 
the  paint.  Of  course  too  much  solvent  is  detri- 
mental to  paint,  no  matter  what  kind  it  may  be. 


106  GASOLINE 


BENZINE  IN  THE  RUBBER  INDUSTRY 

Benzine  in  its  solvent  action  on  rubber  shows 
slight  action  in  the  cold  or  under  gentle  heat. 

The  problem  that  confronts  the  rubber  manu- 
facture as  a  rule  is  the  solution  in  a  solvent  of  gums 
that  are  more  or  less  heavily  compounded,  which 
is  an  easier  problem  than  the  putting  into  solutions 
of  crude  rubber  that  perhaps  has  not  been  broken 
down  in  any  way.  At  the  same  time  it  is  customary 
in  many  cases  to  apply  a  little  heat  during  the 
mixing.  The  following  table  relates  to  different 
naphthas  used  by  the  rubber  trade: 

Gravity 
Products  Be 

Rhigolene 

Gasoline  85 

C.  Naphtha  70 

B.  Naphtha  67 

A.  Naphtha  65 

The  "C"  naphtha  has  not  only  the  greatest 
solvent  power  but  it  is  easier  to  evaporate  after  it 
has  dissolved  the  rubber  compound.  "B"  and  "A" 
require  a  certain  amount  of  heat  to  vaporize  them. 

Naphtha  is  more  largely  used  in  the  proofing 
business  than  any  other.     It  is,  however,  a  general 


GASOLINE 107 

solvent  for  all  rubber  cements,  and  large  quantities 
of  it  are  used  in  almost  all  lines  of  rubber  work 
when  there  is  any  making  up  to  be  done  of  separate 
pieces  after  calendering.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
proper  grade  be  used,  when  one  considers  the  danger 
that  may  come  from  fires  caused  by  explosions  or 
easy  ignitions  of  the  more  volatile  solvents.  Odor- 
less naphthas  are  those  from  which  naphthalene 
is  removed,  as  it  is  the  presence  of  this  body  that 
caused  the  strong  smell.  Naphtha  treated  by  sul- 
phuric acid  is  deodorized,  acquiring  a  rather  pleasant 
odor  as  a  consequence.  It  is  often  mixed  with 
other  solvents,  for  example,  spirits  of  turpentine, 
and  is  thus  found  to  have  a  better  effect  on  the 
rubber. 

HISTORY  OF  PETROLEUM 

Petroleum  or  crude  oil,  from  which  gasoline  is 
obtained,  is  made  mention  of  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
which  we  have  any  records.  The  oil  pits  near 
Ardericca  (Babylon)  and  the  pitch  spring  of 
Zacynthus  (Zante)  are  recorded,  while  Strabo, 
Dioscorides  and  Pliny  mention  the  use  of  oil  of 
Agrigentum,  in  Sicily,  for  lighting  purposes,  and 
Plutarch  refers  to  the  petroleum  found  near  Ecbatana 
(Kerkuk).     Reference  to  the  use  of  natural  gas  for 


108  GASOLINE 


lighting  and  heating  are  found  in  the  ancient  records 
of  the  Chinese.  Petroleum  or  "burning  water" 
was  known  to  the  Japanese  in  the  seventh  century. 
Reference  can  be  found  in  the  literature  to  the 
natural  gas  wells  of  the  north  of  Italy  in  the  year 
1226,  to  the  oil  field  of  Baku,  Russia,  in  the  year 
1300,  etc. 

The  earliest  record  of  crude  oil  or  petroleum  of 
America  was  made  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595. 
He  mentions  the  Pitch  Lakes  of  the  Isle  of  Trinidad. 
Crude  oil  in  New  York  was  made  mention  of  in  1632. 

Commercial  exploitation  of  oil  of  importance 
was  first  made  by  James  Young  in  Derbyshire, 
England,  in  1850.  He  distilled  oil  and  patented  a 
process  for  the  manufacture  of  paraffin.  Crude  oil 
found  in  Kentucky  was  used  as  a  liniment  as  early 
as  1829,  and  sold  under  the  name  of  American 
medicine  oil. 

The  first  oil  well  was  drilled  in  1858  under  the 
direction  of  E.  L.  Drake,  on  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania. 
At  a  depth  of  about  seventy  feet  oil  was  "struck," 
and  about  twenty-five  barrels  a  day  were  obtained 
for  some  time.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  output 
was  fifteen  barrels.  The  production  for  the  year 
1857  was  two  thousand  barrels. 

The  oil  industry  was  confined  to  Pennsylvania 


GASOLINE  109 


for  about  ten  years,  but  starting  in  1870  it  has  spread 
all  over  the  globe.  The  United  States  holds  the 
position  of  being  the  largest  oil  producer  at  the 
present  time,  mining  more  than  sixty  per  cent  of  the 
world's  supply  of  petroleum. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  OIL  FIELDS 

For  convenience  of  discussion  the  oil  pools  of  the 
LTnited  States  are  grouped  in  certain  major  areas  or 
fields  based  originally  on  geographic  position  alone. 
As  these  fields  have  been  extended,  the  geographic 
boundaries  have  become  in  many  cases  less  distinct, 
and  the  separation  has  come  to  be  based  more  and 
more  on  fundamental  differences  in  type  of  oil  pro- 
duced, and  its  adaptability  to  refining  needs. 

The  oils  of  the  Appalachian  field  are  principally 
of  paraffin  base  and  free  from  asphalt  and  sulphur. 
They  yield  by  refining  methods  high  percentages  of 
gasoline  and  illuminating  oils  • —  the  product  in 
greatest  demand. 

The  oils  of  the  Ohio  and  Indiana  fields  con- 
tain some  asphalt,  but  consist  chiefly  of  paraffin 
hydrocarbons.  They  are  contaminated  with  sulphur 
compounds  and  necessitate  special  treatment  to 
purify  them. 

Illinois  oils  contain  varying  proportions  of  both 


110  GASOLINE 


asphalt  and  paraffin  and  differ  considerably  as  to 
specific  gravity  and  distillation  products.  Sulphur 
is  generally  present,  but  rarely  in  such  form  as  to 
necessitate  special  treatment  for  its  removal. 

Mid-continent  oils  vary  in  composition  within 
wide  limits,  ranging  from  asphaltic  oils,  poor  in 
gasoline  and  illuminants,  to  oils  in  which  the  asphalt 
content  is  negligible,  the  paraffin  content  relatively 
high  and  which  yield  correspondingly  high  percent- 
ages of  the  lighter  products  on  distillation.  Sulphur 
is  present  in  varying  quantities  in  the  lower-grade 
oils,  in  certain  of  which,  Healdton  grade  for  example, 
it  exists  in  a  form  requiring  special  treatment  for  its 
elimination. 

Oils  from  the  Gulf  Field  are  characterized  by 
relatively  high  percentages  of  asphalt  and  low  per- 
centages of  the  lighter  gravity  distillation  products. 
Considerable  sulphur  is  present,  much  of  which, 
however,  is  in  the  form  of  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and 
is  easily  removed  by  steam  before  refining  or  utilizing 
the  oil  as  fuel. 

Oils  from  Wyoming  and  Colorado  are  in  the 
main  of  paraffin  base,  suitable  for  refining  by  ordi- 
nary methods.  Heavy  asphaltic  oils  of  fuel  grade 
are  also  obtained  in  certain  of  the  Wyoming  fields. 

California    oils    are    generally    characterized    by 


GASOLINE HI 

much  asphalt  and  little  or  no  paraffin,  and  by  varying 
proportions  of  sulphur.  The  chief  products  are  fuel 
oils,  lamp  oils,  lubricants  and  oil  asphalt,  though 
low  percentages  of  naphthas  may  be  derived  from 
certain  of  the  lighter  oils,  notably  those  of  Santa 
Maria,  Sespe  and  Santa  Paula  fields,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  state. 


112 


G  A  S  O  L  I  X  E 


STATISTICS  REGARDING  PETROLEUM 
PRODUCTION 

Statistics  covering  the  production  of  petroleum 
and  well  drilling  are  given  in  the  following  tables : 


World's    Production    of    Crude    Petroleum 
1914  in  Barrels* 


Production 

Percentage 

Country 

Barrels 

of  Total 

United  States 

265,762,535 

59.63 

Russia 

67,020,522 

29.00 

Mexico 

21,188,427 

1.62 

Roumania 

12,826,579 

2.11 

Dutch  East  Indies 

12,705,208 

2.47 

India 

8,000,000* 

1.32 

Galicia 

5,033,550 

2.36 

Japan 

2,738,378 

.48 

Peru 

1,917,802 

.26 

Germany 

995,764 

.23 

Egypt 

777,038 

.02 

Trinidad 

643,533 

.04 

Canada 

214,805 

.42 

Italy 

39,548 

.01 

Other  Countries 

620,000 

.03 

Total, 

400,483,489 

100.00 

in 


*"Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  in  1914,"  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  page  901. 


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GASOLINE  115 


COMPOSITION  OF  PETROLEUM 

Petroleum  is  composed  essentially  of  the  chemical 
elements  carbon  and  hydrogen  united  so  as  to  form 
very  complex  compounds,  hydrocarbons  as  they  are 
called.  Other  chemical  elements  which  are  found 
in  petroleum  in  small  quantities  are  oxygen,  sulphur 
and  nitrogen. 

A  main  line  of  distinction  is  generally  drawn  be- 
tween petroleums  of  asphaltic  base  and  those  of 
paraffin  base.  Asphaltic  petroleum  yields  on  dis- 
tillation a  dark  asphaltic  residue  which  is  readily 
attacked  by  acids  and  is  dissolved  by  many  solvents. 
Paraffin  petroleums  yield  on  distillation  chiefly 
certain  hydrocarbons  called  paraffins,  and  which  are 
not  readily  attacked  by  acids  and  different  solvents. 

However,  a  sharp  line  of  distinction  cannot  be 
drawn  between  asphaltic  and  paraffin  oils.  Nearly 
all  asphaltic  oils  contain  traces  of  paraffins,  and 
many  oils  that  are  essentially  paraffins  contain 
asphaltic  products;  but  rarely  do  crude  petroleums 
of  either  class  contain  any  considerable  proportion 
of  the  other  class.  Some  Mexican  petroleum  is  of 
the  mixed  type,  and,  hence,  is  very  hard  to  refine,  or 
to  satisfactorily  separate  into  different  portions. 

AW  crude  petroleums,  whether  of  an  asphaltic  or 
paraffin  character,  are  composed  of  different  sub- 


116  GASOLINE 


stances  (hydrocarbons)  that  have  different  boiling 
points  and  that  are  of  different  weight.  As  the  oil 
is  heated  the  various  hydrocarbons  are  given  off, 
those  of  low-boiling  point  being  distilled  first  and 
those  of  high -boiling  point  being  distilled  last. 
Anything  like  a  complete  separation  of  the  compounds 
in  petroleum  presents  considerable  difficulty.  The 
principle  of  the  separation  is  to  steadily  apply  heat 
to  a  container  that  holds  the  oil,  letting  gases  and 
vapors  that  are  given  off  pass  through  a  pipe  (con- 
denser) that  is  kept  cool  by  means  of  a  constant 
circulation  of  water.  The  various  products  are  thus 
condensed  and  put  in  separate  receivers.  The 
products  thus  obtained,  having  boiling  points  and 
weights  between  certain  limits  and  other  qualities, 
are  given  trade  names  under  which  they  are 
marketed. 

In  the  following  tables  are  shown  the  proportions 
of  gasoline,  lamp  oil,  lubricating  oil,  asphalt  and 
paraffin  obtained  from  different  crude  oils: 


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120 


GASOLINE 


The  following  table  shows  the  fractions  obtained 
from  Pennsylvania  and  dishing,  Okla.,  crude  oil, 
and  their  gravity  and  value.* 

Pennsylvania  Crude 


Fraction                            Gravity 

Amount 

Unit 

Value 

°B 

Price 

Gasoline                                  66.2 

25  Gal. 

@$ 

.12 

$3 .  00 

Turp.  Subt.                           51.9 

15 

' 

@> 

.085 

1.28 

Kerosene                                45.7 

15 

i 

@ 

.05 

.75 

300  Oil                                    40.3 

15 

' 

@ 

.05 

.75 

Non.  Vis.  Neut.                    35.5 

12 

' 

@ 

.045 

.54 

Vis.  Neut.                              31.0 

8 

* 

@ 

.12 

.90 

S.  R.  Cyl.  Stock                   25.0 

8 

' 

@ 

.12 

.96 

Ref.  Parf.  Wax                     

2     " 

@ 

.25 

.50 

Total, 

100  Gals. 

$8.74 

5  per  cent  loss  gallonage  in  manu 

facture, 

.44 

Total  value  of  products, 

$8.30 

Cushing  Crude  from  Oklahoma 

Fraction                          Gravity 

Amount 

U 

VIT 

Value 

°B 

Price 

Gasoline                                   65.7 

30  Gals. 

@$ 

.12 

$3.60 

Turp.  Subt.                           48.2 

20     " 

@ 

.085 

1.70 

Kerosene                                 40.1 

15     " 

@, 

.03 

.45 

Gas  Oil                                   34.6 

15     " 

@ 

.02 

.30 

Vis.  Neut.                              28. 

10     ' 

@ 

.10 

1.00 

^Compiled  by  Harry   Willock,  Secretary  of  the  Waverly 
Oil  Company,  Pittsburgh,  Pa, 


(; 

ASOL 

INE 

121 

Fraction 

Gravity 

Amount 

■ 

Unit 

Value 

Price 

S.  R,  Cyl.  Stock 

24. 

6  Gals. 

@ 

$.08 

$   .48 

Ref.  Parf.  Wax- 

0.5 

0.5  " 

@ 

.25 

.13 

Asphalt 

3.5  " 

@ 

.00 

21 

Total, 

100.0  Gals 

$7.87 

5  per  cent  gallonage 

loss  in  mam 

ifacture, 

.39 

Total  value  of  products,  $7.48 

The  above  figures  show  that  the  products  from 
100  gallons  of  Pennsylvania  oil  only  exceed  in  value 
the  products  of  a  like  number  of  gallons  of  Cushing 
crude  by  $  .82,  although  Cushing  crude  sells  for 
about  one-half  as  much  as  Pennsylvania  crude  at 
the  wells. 

Composition  of  Petroleum  of  Texas-Louisiana 
Coastal  Plain* 

Spindle  Top  and 

Product                   Sour  Lake  Crude  Batson  Crude 

per  cent  per  cent 

Gasoline                                        1.8  6.5 

Kerosene                                     17.1  20.4 

Solar                                            15.4  14.4 

Lubricating                                52.2  46.7 

Asphalt                                         7.5  6.0 

*Oil  fields  of  the  Texas-Louisiana  gulf  coastal  plain.  U.  S- 
Geological  Surrey,  1906,  Bulletin  282,  page  130. 


12: 


GASOLINE 


Comparative  Tests  of  Three  Different  Samples 

of  Crude  Petroleum;  also  Specific  Gravities, 

of  the  Fractions  Obtained    from    same 

by   Distillation* 


Pennsylvania 

Illinois 

Oklahoma 

Color 

Yellow 

Nearly 

Black 

Dark  Green 

Sulphur 

0.078% 

0.205% 

0.283% 

Sp.  Gr. 

41.9°  Be. 

33.  8C 

Be. 

37.5°  Be. 

DISTILLATION 

% 

BE.  GR. 

%       be.gr. 

%       be.gr. 

1st  fraction 

10.0 

70.0 

10.0 

60.5 

10.0       67.9 

2d    fraction 

10.0 

58.8 

10.0 

51.5 

10.0       56.4 

3d   fraction 

10.0 

52.8 

10.0 

45.6 

10.0       50.6 

4th  fraction 

10.0 

48.1 

10.0 

40.6 

10.0       45.1 

5th  fraction 

10.0 

43.7 

10.0 

36.7 

10.0       40.5 

6th  fraction 

10.0 

42.0 

10.0 

34.3 

10.0       36.6 

7tH  fraction 

10.0 

39.3 

10.0 

34.2 

10.0       34.2 

8th  fraction 

10.0 

38.9 

10.0 

34.6 

10.0       33.9 

9th  fraction 

10.0 

38.8 

10.0 

36.8 

10.0       36.6 

10th  fraction 

8.5 

36.9 

6.0 

21.3 

_    5.0       36.9 

Coke  &  Loss 

1.5 

4.0 

5.0 

Total, 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

Comparisons  of  gasoline,  lamp  oils,  lubricating 
oils,  etc.,  according  to  a  fixed  range  of  temperatures 

industrial  Chemistry,  Allen  Rogers,  1915,  page  504. 


(i  A  SO  LINE  123 


of  distillation,  as  in  the  foregoing  tables,  give  but  an 
approximate  idea  of  the  actual  composition  of  the 

oil,  although,  such  divisions  are  useful  for  rough 
comparisons.  Sometimes  those  products  that  are 
distilled  from  crude  oil  at  temperatures  up  to  350°  F. 
are  called  gasoline;  those  that  are  distilled  at  tem- 
peratures between  350°  F.  and  570°  F.  are  called 
lamp  oils  or  illuminating  oils,  or  naphtha. 

EARLY  HISTORY  OF  GASOLINE 

Little  was  known  about  the  properties  of  crude 
oil  in  the  early  days  of  its  discovery  in  Pennsylvania, 
certainly  no  one  dreamed  of  its  tremendous  potential 
possibilities.  At  first  it  was  used  for  medicinal 
purposes.  Next  it  was  discovered  that  a  certain 
portion  of  it  could  be  removed  by  distillation  and 
could  be  used  as  a  fuel  in  lamps.  A  considerable 
portion  of  this  distillate  however  was  of  so  light  and 
inflammable  a  character  that  it  caused  many  ex- 
plosions. Hence,  the  next  step  was  to  remove  this 
light  portion.  This  latter  portion  was  gasoline  and 
that  remaining  portion  the  kerosene,  used  to-day  in 
lamps  as  an  illuminant.  The  result  was  that  gaso- 
line became  a  waste  product  and  remained  so  until 
the  gasoline  vapor  lamp  and  stove  were  perfected. 
But  these  articles  only  consumed  a  limited  quantity 


124  GASOLINE 


of  gasoline,  and  it  was  only  with  the  advent  of  the 
automobile  that  gasoline  came  into  extensive  use. 
At  the  present  time  gasoline,  once  thrown  away,  is  in 
great  demand,  and  new  uses  are  demanded  for  the 
by-product  kerosene.  In  fact,  "What  to  do  with 
Kerosene"  is  a  great  problem  at  the  present  time 
with  the  refiner,  and  serious  efforts  are  being  made  to 
devise  apparatus  and  methods  of  changing  it  into 
products  that  can  be  utilized  commercially.  It  is 
too  high  grade  to  be  used  as  fuel  oil,  that  is,  oil  for 
burning  in  locomotives  and  under  marine  boilers, 
etc.,  and  it  is  of  too  low  grade  for  general  use  in 
automobile  engines. 

The  gasoline  of  the  United  States,  the  benzine 
of  the  European  continent  and  the  petrol  of  Eng- 
land, are  one  and  the  same  thing;  i.  e.,  synonyms  for 
the  same  petroleum  distillate. 

PRESENT  SHORTAGE  OF  GASOLINE 

The  reason  for  the  present  shortage  of  gasoline 
and  consequent  increase  in  price  is  that  the  con- 
sumption of  gasoline  is  rapidly  increasing,  while  the 
production  of  crude  oil,  from  which  it  is  principally 
derived,  is  generally  regarded  as  having  reached  its 
maximum. 

The  figures   showing  the  production   of  gasoline 


GASOLINE 125 

as  given  in  the  following  table  by  Secretary  Lane, 
of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  were  compiled 
in  response  to  a  United  States  Senate  inquiry  into 
the  production,  consumption  and  price  of  gasoline. 
(A)  U.  S.  Res.  40,  1916.  The  quantities  refer  to 
barrels  of  forty-two  gallons  each. 


PRODUCTION  AND   EXPORT, 

\TION   OF 

GASOLINE 

(In  barrels  of  42  gals 

0 

Gasoline 

Year 

Production 

Exported 

Difference 

1899 

6,680,000 

297,000 

6,383,000 

1904 

6,290,000 

594,000 

6,326,000 

1909 

12,900,000 

1,640,000 

11,260,000 

1914 

34,915,000 

5,000,000 

29,915,000 

1915 

41,600,000 

6,500,000 

35,100,000 

Secretary  Lane's  report  states  that  one  reason 
for  the  sudden,  extraordinary  rise  in  the  retail  price 
of  gasoline  has  been  the  increase  in  exports  due  to 
the  war.  The  exports  of  1914  exceeded  those  of 
1913  by  500,000  barrels,  and  the  exports  of  1915, 
exceeded  those  of  1914  by  1,500,000  barrels.  He 
adds  that  increased  gasoline  consumption  within  the 
United  States  was  twenty-five  per  cent  greater 
during  1915  than  1914,  and  that  there  will  be  a  like 
increase  during  1916. 


126 GASOLINE 

During  1915  refiners  had  gasoline  in  storage 
amounting  to  at  least  2,000,000  barrels.  Inquiry 
to-day  indicates  that  there  is  little  gasoline  in  storage. 

The  decline  of  the  Cushing,  Oklahoma,  oil  field 
has  its  effect  on  the  gasoline  shortage.  This  pool 
declined  from  more  than  300,000  barrels  in  April, 
1915,  to  less  than  100,000  barrels  in  January,  1916, 
This  decline  was  partially  compensated  for  by  an 
increased  production  from  other  pools,  the  gasoline 
content  of  which  production  was,  however,  from  five 
to  seven  per  cent  less  than  that  of  the  Cushing  crude. 

Authorities  agree  that  the  automobile  and  other 
internal  combustion  engines  are  primarily  responsi- 
ble for  the  increased  consumption  of  gasoline.  The 
statement  has  been  made  that  the  horsepower  of 
gasoline  internal  combustion  engines  in  the  United 
States  is  more  than  twice  that  of  all  engines  in  the 
United  States  driven  by  steam.  The  following 
figures  indicate  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
automobiles  used  from  1899  to  1916.  These  figures 
were  compiled  by  the  National  Automobile  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  and  are  based  on  State  registration. 


GASOLINE  127 


Number  of  Automobiles  Used  From  1899  to  1916 

Year  No.  of  Automobiles 

1899  10,000 

190,r>  85,000 

1910  400,000 

1911  600,000 

1912  677,000 

1913  1,010,483 

1914  1,253,875 

1915  2,075,000 

1916  2,950,000 

Various  authorities  estimate  that  the  average 
consumption  per  automobile  equals  from  ten  to 
fourteen  barrels  per  annum.  This  figure  has  been 
checked  against  inspection  figures  of  States  inspecting 
all  gasoline  sold. 

The  average  gasoline  content  of  crude  oil  of 
various  fields,  the  total  production  to  date,  including 
the  year  1915,  and  the  estimated  percentage  of 
exhaustion,  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


128 


GASOLINE 


Gasoline  Content  of  Oil  from  Different  Fields 
and  Products 


Oil  Field 


Gasoline 
(Per  cent) 

25 

12 

18 

18 

20 

20 
3 

20 

20 

91 


Production 

Including 

1915  (Millions 

of  barrels) 

1,150 

438 

251 

617 

44 

58 

236 

11 

12 

835 


Estimated  Per- 
centage of 
Exhaustion  of 
Oil  Field 
74 
93 
60 
50 
41 
47 
79 
79 
5 
34 


Appalachian 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Mid-Continent 

North  Texas 

Northwest  La. 

Gulf  Coast 

Colorado 

Wyoming 

California 

A  few  years  ago  this  country  supplied  the  world 
with  gasoline,  while  in  1915  our  exports  were  only 
one-fifth  of  the  total  amount  required  for  supplying 
the  demand  in  foreign  countries.  If  the  home  con- 
sumption continues  to  grow  anything  like  the  same 
rate  as  in  the  last  few  years,  the  United  States  will 
soon  have  no  gasoline  to  export.  Even  now  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  gasoline  is  imported  into  this 
country  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  the  Dutch  West 
Indies,    mostly    from    Borneo    and    Java.     While, 


GASOLINE  121) 


therefore,  gasoline  is  being  exported  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  some  is  being  imported  on  the  western  shores. 
In  the  ten  years  from  1902  to  1912,  the  number  of 
vehicles  using  gasoline  for  motive  power  has  been 
increased  sixty-fold,  while  the  production  of  the 
grades  of  crude  petroleum,  suitable  for  the  extrac- 
tion of  gasoline,  increased  only  one  hundred  per  cent. 
At  the  present  time  the  average  horsepower  for 
vehicles  using  gasoline  has  increased  considerably. 
Oh  the  average,  the  horsepower  requirements  for 
each  automobile  was  probably  one  hundred  per  cent 
greater  than  in  1902. 

The  discrepancy  between  the  demand  and  pro- 
duction has  been  made  up  in  several  ways : 

(1)  A  considerable  amount  of  crude  oil  suitable 
for  producing  gasoline  has  been  imported. 

(2)  Efficiency  and,  therefore,  the  economy  of  the 
motors  has  been  very  much  improved. 

(3)  A  very  much  heavier  "gasoline "  is  now  being- 
used  than  formerly. 

(4)  A  considerable  amount  of  gasoline  is  being- 
obtained  from  casing  head  natural  gas. 

(5)  "Cracking"    processes   for   producing   more 
gasoline  from  crude  oil  have  been  introduced. 


130  GASOLINE 


Price 

of  Gasoline 

Year 

Per  Gallon.  Cents 

1897 

7.4 

1898 

7.4 

1899 

10.9 

1900 

10.4 

1901 

9.7 

1902 

10.8 

1903 

12.4 

1904 

11.4 

1905 

10.7 

1906 

10.5 

1907 

10.2 

1908 

10.0 

1909 

10.0 

1910 

9.5 

1911 

10.0 

1912 

14.0 

1913 

18.0 

1914 

16.0 

1915 

15.0 

1916 

27.0 

REFINING  CRUDE  OIL 

Three  methods  are  used  in  distilling  oil  of  the 
Pennsylvania  type,  namely,  dry  or  destructive  dis- 
tillation, steam  distillation  and  vacuum  distillation. 

Dry  or  destructive  distillation  causes  cracking  or 
decomposition,  and  is  conducted  by  means  of  direct 
fire  heat.  The  distillation  is  usually  carried  to  coke. 
The  process  is  best  adapted  to  petroleum  that  is  unfit 
for  cylinder  stocks. 


GASOLINE 131 

The  increase  in  the  price  of  gasoline,  between  the 
years  1897  and  1916,  is  shown  in  following  table: 

Steam  distillation  makes  it  possible  to  distill  oil 
at  lower  temperature  than  by  dry  distillation,  and  is, 
therefore,  used  to  prevent  decomposition.  The 
stills  are  of  the  same  type  as  those  used  in  dry  dis- 
tillation, except  that  they  are  well  insulated  in  order 
to  prevent  the  vapors  from  condensing  on  the  sides 
and  falling  back  into  the  superheated  oil.  Steam  is 
introduced  into  the  body  of  the  oil  in  the  still,  and 
the  distillation  controlled  by  fires  beneath  the  stills. 

Vacuum  distillation  is  sometimes  used  in  con- 
junction with  the  process  of  steam  distillation.  A 
partial  vacuum  is  created  by  means  of  a  pump, 
thereby  causing  the  hydrocarbons  to  distill  at  low 
temperatures.  This  method  requires  heavier  stills, 
and  although  the  results  are  said  to  be  superior,  the 
difference  is  not  usually  considered  great  enough  to 
warrant  the  cost  of  installation  and  operation. 

The  "cracking"  and  steam,  or  fractional  dis- 
tillation, represent  two  distinctly  different  methods 
of  refining.  If  a  refiner  desires  to  produce  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  gasoline  and  lamp  oil,  he  will  use 
the  method  of  "cracking"  distillation.  But  if  he 
wishes  to   produce   the  maximum   yield   of   heavy 


132  GASOLINE 


lubricating  oils  and  petroleum  asphalts,  he  will  use 
the  method  of  steam  or  fractional  distillation. 

The  following  scheme  of  petroleum  fractionation 
is  that  used  by  the  Atlantic  Refining  Company.* 
(Standard  Oil  Company.) 


*Prepared  by  F.  C.  Robinson,  Chief  Chemist,  Atlantic 
Refining  Company,  and  published  in  "Oildom,"  January, 
1916,  Vol.  6,  page  20. 


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136  GASOLINE 


The  first  group  of  products  that  is  separated  is 
made  up  of  gasolines  and  naphthas.  There  is  some 
confusion  among  the  various  names,  benzine,  gaso- 
line, naphtha,  etc.,  but  the  best  practice  is  to  use  the 
word  "gasoline"  for  any  mixture  of  light  hydro- 
carbons intended  for  use  in  any  kind  of  vaporizer, 
i.  e.,  to  be  gasified  in  a  gas  machine,  gasoline  torch, 
gasoline  stove  or  automobile  carburetor.  Also  to 
confine  the  word  naphtha  to  mixtures  of  hydro- 
carbons intended  for  some  purpose  that  requires  a 
very  good  odor,  such  as  naphtha  used  by  cleaners, 
varnish  makers,  soap  makers,  etc.  In  this  scheme, 
the  word  benzine  finds  no  place.  Gasolines  and 
naphthas  vary  in  boiling,  according  to  the  use  for 
which  they  are  intended,  but  the  best  grades  lay 
between  150°  F.  and  300°  F.*  It  is  essential  that 
good  gasoline  be  free  from  all  heavy  hydrocarbons 
that  do  not  evaporate  from  the  hand. 

The  next  group  consists  of  several  grades  of  lamp 
oil.  Lamp  oil  is  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbons  whose 
average  boiling  point  is  about  450c  F.,  entirely  freed 
on  the  one  hand  from  gasoline  or  naphtha,  and  on 
the  other  hand  from  the  heavy  hydrocarbons  that 

*Most  of  the  gasoline  sold  on  the  market  at  the  present 
time  boils  up  to  350°  F.     (Author.) 


GASOLINE  137 


belong  to  gas  oil  and  lubricating  oil,  and  that  would 
make  the  oil  act  badly  in  the  lamp. 

The  next  class  is  gas  oil.  While  oils  of  all  degrees 
of  volatility  have  been  used,  the  most  economical 
for  the  gas  maker  consists  of  a  mixture  of  heavy 
hydrocarbons  with  an  average  boiling  point  of  600° 
to  650°  F.  It  must  be  practically  free  from  gasoline 
and  lamp  oil  on  the  one  hand  and  from  the  heavy 
lubricating  oils  and  asphalt  on  the  other. 

The  next  group  is  fuel  oil.  Tins  oil  occupies  a 
peculiar  position.  It  must  not  contain  gasoline  and 
must  be  of  such  a  consistency  that  it  can  be  pumped 
through  pipes  and  burners,  but,  except  for  these  re- 
strictions, one  oil  is  practically  as  good  as  another 
for  fuel.  The  light  oils  have  a  slightly  higher  heat 
of  combustion  per  pound,  but  the  heavier  oils  have  a 
slightly  higher  heat  of  combustion  per  gallon.  For 
some  purposes,  such  as  oil  engines,  special  oils  are 
required,  but,  in  general,  fuel  oil  is  made  up  of  oils 
that  cannot  be  used  for  any  better  purpose. 

The  next  group  is  that  of  spindle  oils  —  neutral 
and  paraffin  oils.  This  important  group  includes 
hundreds  of  light  lubricating  oils  designed  for  use  on 
thousands  of  different  light  machines,  including  gas 
engines.  They  must  be  free  from  gasoline  and 
lamp  oil  in  order  that  their  flash  test  shall  be  high 


138  GASOLINE 


enough  to  prevent  loss  by  evaporation.  The  im- 
portant point  to  that  is  that  they  shall  have  the 
proper  viscosity  for  the  use  intended. 

The  next  group  is  that  of  steam  cylinder  oils, 
which  consist  of  the  heaviest  hydrocarbons  contained 
in  certain  crude  oils.  In  this  case  also  the  flash  must 
be  such  that  the  oils  will  not  evaporate  in  a  steam 
cylinder,  and  must  have  the  proper  viscosity  for  the 
use  intended  at  the  temperature  of  the  cylinder. 

The  next  group  —  paraffin  wax  —  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  hydrocarbons  of  the  paraffin  series  about 
C23  H48  to  C35  H72.  The  commercial  article  is  rated 
according  to  the  melting  point,  which  varies  from 
100°  to  135°  F. 

The  next  group,  vaseline  or  petroleum,  consists 
of  the  higher  member  of  the  paraffin  series  which 
settle  from  crude  oil  mixed  and  inseparable  from  some 
of  the  oily  constituents  of  the  crude.  It  is  marketed 
as  the  light-colored  material  used  in  medicine  and  for 
toilet  purposes,  or  as  the  dark-colored  sticky  material 
used  in  large  quantities  by  the  makers  of  oiled  paper. 

The  next  group,  the  dust  laying  oils,  consists  of 
petroleum  asphalt  in  solution  in  oils  similar  to  gas 
oil.  The  basic  idea  in  their  manufacture  is  that  the 
solvent  will  slowly  evaporate,  leaving  the  dust  par- 
ticles covered  with  a  sticky  adherent  film.     These 


GASOLINE  130 


oils  have  proven  successful  as  a  cheap  means  of  lay- 
ing dust. 

The  next  group,  the  road  binders,  consists  of 
petroleum  asphalt  properly  fluxed  with  heavy 
petroleum  oils  that  will  not  evaporate,  and  of  such 
qualities  that  they  will  bind  the  road  materials  to- 
gether both  in  summer  and  winter. 

The  next  group,  coke,  contains  but  one  member. 
This  material  being  almost  entirely  free  from  ash,  is 
used  very  extensively  by  makers  of  electric  carbons. 

These  are  the  desired  products.  Next  taking  up 
the  crude  oils  from  which  they  are  obtained. 

There  are  about  as  many  varieties  of  crude  oil 
as  there  are  oil  fields,  but  the  refiner  recognizes 
three  distinct  types,  because  each  type  must  be 
handled  by  different  methods,  viz.:  (1)  The  paraffin 
base  crude  similar  to  that  found  in  Pennsylvania 
and  West  Virginia,  and  being  essentially  light- 
colored  crudes  containing  paraffin.  (2)  Asphalt 
base  crudes  similar  to  those  found  in  Texas  and 
California,  and  being  essentially  black  and  con- 
taining no  paraffin.  (3)  Mixed  base  crudes  similar 
to  those  found  from  Ohio  to  Oklahoma,  and  being 
essentially  mixtures  of  paraffin  and  asphalt  base 
crudes. 

In  order  to  obtain  some  idea  of  the  chemical  and 


140  GASOLINE 


physical  nature  of  the  crude  oil  one  can  imagine 
a  sample  of  mixed  base  crude  brought  into  the 
laboratory  for  a  thorough  examination.  The  chem- 
ist would  probably  distill  the  sample  in  a  vacuum  or 
in  some  similar  manner  in  order  to  avoid  destructive 
distillation  and  would  save  the  various  fractions 
separate.  He  would  not  distill  off  more  than  ninety 
per  cent,  because  the  heaviest  ten  per  cent  cannot  be 
distilled  without  breaking  it  down  into  simpler 
molecules.  He  will  then  start  to  examine  the  various 
fractions. 

The  first  fraction  will  be  a  light  mobile  mixture  of 
hydrocarbons  whose  average  boiling  point  is  about 
227°  F.  The  second  is  a  slightly  darker  and  a 
slightly  less  mobile  mixture  of  hydrocarbons  whose 
average  boiling  point  is  about  295°  F.  The  third 
cut  again  darker,  heavier  and  less  mobile,  boiling 
point  369°  F.  The  fourth  cut  still  heavier  and  460° 
F.  boiling  point.  The  fifth  cut  is  about  530°  F. 
boiling  point.  The  remaining  cuts  are  increasingly 
heavier,  more  viscous  and  darker  in  color,  and  the 
residue  in  the  still  is  a  soft  pitch. 

The  chemist  now  recognizes  four  groups  of  com- 
pounds in  each  fraction  that  the  refiner  may  have  to 
isolate  or  remove. 

He   can   isolate   one   group    by    bone   black    or 


GASOLINE 141 

fuller's  earth.  When  isolated  in  a  pure  state  it  is  a 
jet  black,  brittle  compound  which  is  very  similar  to 
the  purest  asphalt. 

A  second  important  class  of  compounds  is  the 
material  soluble  in  strong  sulphuric  acid.  The  low- 
boiling  members  of  this  group  represent  the  odor- 
bearing  compounds  of  the  crude,  while  the  higher 
members  are  rich  in  sulphur,  and  are  easily  oxi- 
dized. The  refiner  frequently  has  to  remove  a 
portion  of  this  class. 

A  third  group  is  that  of  aromatic  hydrocarbons, 
benzol,  naphthalene,  anthracene,  etc.,  which  may 
be  removed  by  agitating  the  oil  with  fuming  sul- 
phuric acid. 

The  remainder  of  the  crude  oil  unattacked  by 
fuming  sulphuric  acid  is  made  up  of  the  naphthene 
and  paraffin  series. 

4.  Now,  starting  with  crude  oil,  it  is  the  task 
of  the  refiner  to  isolate  the  commercial  products. 
The  processes  are  outlined  on  two  charts,  Figures 
1  and  2,  and  they  represent  two  distinctly  different 
methods  of  refining,  so  much  so  that  one  refiner  may 
decide  to  use  one  of  them  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
other,  or  he  may  decide  to  use  both  of  them. 

He  will  be  guided  in  this  decision  by  his  local 
conditions.     If  it  be  his  desire  to  produce  the  maxi- 


142  GASOLINE 


mum  amount  of  gasoline  and  lamp  oil,  he  will  use  the 
method  marked  "Cracking  Distillation."  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  he  wishes  to  produce  the  maximum 
yield  of  the  heavy  lubricating  oils  and  petroleum 
asphalts,  he  will  use  the  method  marked  "Fractional 
Distillation,"  which  means  that  he  will  simply 
separate  from  the  crude  oil  the  various  fractions 
which  compose  it,  while  the  refiner  who  uses  the 
cracking  process  actually  breaks  down  these  heavy 
fractions  by  destructive  distillation  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  production  of  benzol  and  gas  by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal. 

The  first  step  in  the  cracking  process  is  the  crack- 
ing distillation.  The  crude  oil  is  pumped  into  stills 
containing  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  barrels, 
which  consist  simply  of  horizontal  steel  cylinders 
made  of  sheets  of  half -inch  boiler  steel  riveted  to- 
gether and  provided  with  manholes  on  top  and 
ends;  with  pipe  for  pumping  oil  into  the  stills;  with 
combustion, chamber  underneath;  with  the  fractional 
air  condensers  and  with  water  condenser,  and  with 
pipe  for  conducting  away  the  gases  evolved  during 
the  distillation. 

Such  a  still  is  nearly  filled  with  oil,  i.e.,  mid- 
continent  crude  oil,  and  the  fires  are  lighted.  When 
the  temperature  of  the  oil  in  the  still  has  reached 


G  A  SO  LINE  143 


175°  to  200°  F.  some  gases,  consisting  largely  of 
butane  and  pentane,  are  given  off  and  presently  the 
highest  naphtha  starts  to  distill  over.  The  firing  is 
continued;  the  temperature  in  the  still  becomes  grad- 
ually higher;  the  distillate  becomes  gradually  heavier 
until  the  temperature  in  the  still  reaches  about 
325°  F.,  at  which  point  about  six  or  eight  per 
cent  of  crude  naphtha  (200°  F.  boiling  point)  has 
distilled  over.     This  is  set  aside  as  crude  naphtha. 

The  distillation  is  continued  until  the  temperature 
in  the  still  has  reached  about  475°  F.  for  crude 
heavy  naphtha,  and  represents  thirteen  to  fifteen 
per  cent  of  the  crude,  and  has  an  average  boiling 
point  of  about  300°  F.  The  distillation  is  then 
continued  until  the  temperature  in  the  still  has 
reached  about  625°  F.  for  natural  lamp  distillate, 
which  represents  about  sixteen  to  eighteen  per  cent, 
and  has  an  average  boiling  point  of  about  450°  F. 

When  the  still  has  reached  this  temperature, 
cracking  or  destructive  distillation  sets  in.  The 
fires  are  slackened  in  order  to  distill  very  slowly,  and 
this  slow  distillation  is  continued  until  the  tem- 
perature in  the  still  reaches  675°  to  700°  F.,  produc- 
ing a  distillate  with  an  average  boiling  point  of  about 
550°  F.,  but  containing  some  gasoline,  some  lamp 
oil   and  much  heavier   oil  which  is   designated  as 


144  G  A  S  O  L  I  X  E 


gas  and  fuel  oil  stock.  The  yield  of  this  oil  is  about 
twenty  per  cent. 

This  cracking  distillation  is  very  different  from 
an  ordinary  fractional  distillation;  heavy  molecules 
have  been  broken  down  into  lighter  ones  by  sub- 
mitting them  to  temperatures  at  which  they  are 
unstable. 

There  yet  remains  in  the  still  a  heavy  black  tar 
representing  about  forty-two  per  cent  of  the  crude 
oil.  This  is  the  source  of  paraffin  wax,  and  the 
line  of  lubricating  oils  called  paraffin  oils.  It  is  no 
longer  desirable  to  carry  on  a  cracking  distillation 
because  this  would  result  in  the  destruction  of  the 
valuable  products  desired.  The  distillation  is  con- 
tinued in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid  cracking  as  much  as 
possible  (is  distilled  fast),  either  in  the  same  still  or, 
more  commonly,  in  separate  smaller  stills  called 
tar  stills. 

This  tar  still  distillation  is  carried  on  very 
rapidly  in  order  to  produce  the  maximum  yield 
of  paraffin  distillate  (about  twenty-two  per  cent). 
In  addition  to  the  paraffin  distillate,  there  is  also 
produced  by  destructive  distillation  about  fifteen 
per  cent  of  cracked  distillate.  At  the  end  of  the  dis- 
tillation the  stream  becomes  so  heavy  that  it  will 
sink  in  water,  and  is  then  known  as  wax  tailings, 


G  ASOLINE 145 

which  amounts  to  about  one  per  cent  of  the  crude 
oil.  When  the  distillation  stops  there  remains  in 
the  still  nothing  but  coke,  amounting  to  about  four 
per  cent  of  the  crude  oil. 

Now,  taking  up  the  various  fractions:  first,  the 
crude  naphtha.  This  is  again  distilled;  first,  in 
order  to  separate  it  into  the  various  gasolines  and 
naphthas  that  compose  it,  and,  secondly,  to  separate 
it  from  the  small  amount  of  bottoms  or  light  lamp  oil 
that  it  contains.  This  is  done  in  a  still  which  is 
heated  by  steam,  usually  by  injecting  live  steam 
directly  into  the  gasoline. 

When  the  distillation  starts,  some  gas  is  given  off; 
then  the  lightest  distillate  appears  at  the  trap, 
usually  about  90°  Baume  gravity.  The  distillate 
gradually  gets  heavier  until'all  the  gasoline  has  dis- 
tilled off.  The  receiver  is  then  changed  and  the 
naphtha  distillate  is  separated.  At  this  point  about 
ninety  per  cent  has  distilled  off,  leaving  a  bottom 
about  ten  per  cent.  This  bottom  is  essentially  lamp 
oil  and  is  used  as  such.  The  heavy  crude  naphtha  is 
handled  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  it  contains 
little  or  no  gasoline  and  contains  about  fifty  per 
cent  of  bottom  or  lamp  oil.  The  cracked  distillate 
is  also  distilled  with  steam  to  remove  about  four 
per  cent  of  crude  naphtha. 


146  GASOLINE 


Up  to  this  point  all  the  operations  have  been 
different  types  of  distillation.  The  next  step  in 
handling  the  naphtha  distillate  from  both  sources, 
the  lamp  oil  distillate  and  the  crude  naphtha  from 
cracked  distillate  and  the  test  cracked  distillate,  is 
the  acid  treatment.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  crude 
diagrams  that  all  the  fractions  contain  a  certain  per- 
centage of  material  attackable  by  sulphuric  acid,  so 
that  this  reagent  affords  a  convenient  means  for  re- 
moving color  and  odor  from  the  remainder  of  the  hy- 
drocarbon distillate. 

In  practice,  the  naphtha  distillates  are  agitated 
with  about  five  per  cent  by  volume,  and  the  lamp  oil 
distillates  with  about  one  and  five-tenths  per  cent 
of  sulphuric  acid  (oil  or  vitriol)  for  about  a  half  hour. 
The  color-  and  odor-bearing  compounds  combine 
with  the  acid,  producing  a  heavy  black  viscous  mass 
called  acid  sludge,  which  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  The  sludge  is  drawn  off  and  the  oil  washed 
with  water  and  alkali  to  remove  all  traces  of  acid, 
and  is  then  ready  for  the  market. 

The  sludge  from  all  acid  treatments  is  separated 
into  unstable  products.  This  is  accomplished  by 
boiling  it  with  water,  which  results  in  the  dilution  of 
the  acid  and  renders  it  incapable  of  holding  in  solu- 
tion the  impurities. 


GASOLINE  147 


The  weak  acid  (30°  to  50°  Baume)  settles  to  the 
bottom,  is  drawn  off  and  reconcentrat.ed.  The  upper 
layer  consisting  of  the  impurities  is  known  as  acid  oil. 
This  acid  oil  is  separated  by  fractional  distillation 
into  a  light  distillate  which  consists  of  all  the  evil 
odors  that  the  original  distillate  contained  and  a 
residue  consisting  of  the  asphaltic  compounds  that 
were  removed  by  the  acid. 

There  have  been  given  now  all  the  processes  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  naphtha  and  lamp  oil. 

The  next  general  subject  is  the  handling  of  the 
paraffin  distillate,  which  is  the  direct  source  of  the 
paraffin  wax  and  all  of  the  paraffin  oils.  The  first 
step  is  the  process  of  cold  pressing.  The  distillate  is 
first  cooled  from  20°  to  30°  F.  by  pumping  through 
pipes  surrounded  by  cold  brine,  thereby  causing  the 
paraffin  wax  (amounting  to  about  ten  per  cent  of  the 
distillate)  to  solidify.  This  solid  ten  per  cent  mixed 
with  ninety  per  cent  liquid  oil  forms  a  soft  mush 
which  is  pumped  through  a  filter  press.  That  which 
stays  in  the  press  is  called  the  slack  wax  and  amounts 
to  about  twenty  per  cent  of  the  paraffin  distillate. 
The  eighty  per  cent  that  goes  through  is  called 
pressed  distillate. 

The  slack  wax,  consisting  of  about  equal  parts  of 
oil  and  wax,  is  then  put  through  a  process  peculiar 


148  GASOLINE 


to-  the  oil  business,  known  as  the  sweating  process. 
It  consists  of  cooling  the  mixture  until  it  has  become 
a  solid  cake  and  then  very  gradually  warming  it. 
The  crystals  of  the  paraffin  form  a  network  through 
which  the  oil  is  distributed,  and  when  the  mass  is 
warmed  the  oil  sweats  out  *and  drips  away.  It 
always  carries  with  it  some  wax  in  solution,  but  the 
final  result  is  that  the  oil  all  sweats  out,  leaving  t^e 
paraffin  wax  in  a  fairly  pure  state. 

This  sweating  process  separates  the  slack  wax 
into  crude  paraffin  wax  and  what  is  known  as  Foot's 
oil.  The  latter  still  contains  much  paraffin,  which 
is  removed  by  putting  it  again  through  either  the 
cold  pressing  or  sweating  process. 

The  crude  paraffin  wax  is  then  put  through  an- 
other process  that  is  peculiar  to  the  oil  business,  that 
of  clay  or  bone  black  percolation,  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  asphaltic  coloring  matter  and  thereby 
changing  the  crude  paraffin  to  refined  colorless 
paraffin.  The  clay  used  for  this  purpose  has 
properties  similar  to  those  of  bone  black,  i.  e.,  it 
absorbs  and  retains  tarry  and  asphaltic  compounds. 
It  is  found  in  Florida  and  Georgia,  where  it  is 
mined,  roasted,  broken  up  and  sifted.  It  is  very 
porous  and  light,  weighing  only  about  2.3  as  much 
as  water.     This  clay  or  fuller's  earth,  as  it  is  com- 


GASOLINE 149 

monly  called,  is  put  into  large  upright  cylinders 
holding  ten  to  twenty  tons,  and  provided  with  a 
finely -perforated  bottom.  The  crude  wax  is  melted 
and  poured  on  top  of  the  clay.  It  trickles  down 
through  the  clay  bed  and  passes  through  the  per- 
forated bottom. 

The  first  drippings  from  such  a  filter  bed  are 
absolutely  colorless,  but  as  the  filtration  progresses, 
the  color  becomes  more  and  more  like  crude  wax.  A 
ton  of  clay  yields  five  or  six  tons  of  first-quality  paraf- 
fin wax.  The  amount  of  asphalt  or  coloring  matter  re- 
tained by  the  clay  is  exceedingly  small,  and  is  removed 
by  burning  the  clay  in  a  cement  kiln  of  the  usual 
type,  thus  regenerating  the  clay  for  subsequent  use. 

It  was  explained  that  the  paraffin  distillate  is  the 
source  of  paraffin  wax  and  light  lubricating  oils.  The 
various  steps  in  the  preparation  of  paraffin  have  also 
been  described.  The  light  lubricating  oils  are  made 
from  the  filtrate  from  the  cold  presses  —  the  pressed 
paraffin  distillate  —  by  putting  it  through  the 
process  of  fractional  distillation,  thereby  separating 
it  into  a  distillate  of  light  oils  that  go  to  make  up  the 
gas  and  fuel  oil  stock,  and  a  residue  in  the  still  called 
paraffin  oil  stock,  representing  from  fifteen  per  cent 
to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  charge  of  the  still,  depending 
on  the  quality  desired. 


150  G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


This  type  of  distillation  is  also  peculiar  to  the  oil 
business.  The  desired  product  is  a  heavy  oil,  so  that 
all  cracking  must  be  avoided  in  order  to  produce  the 
maximum  yield  of  this  oil.  The  result  is  accom- 
plished by  using  the  very  important  process  of  dis- 
tillation with  bottom  steam  or  fractional  distillation. 
A  still  is  charged  with  the  pressed  paraffin  distillate 
and  fires  are  lighted.  The  temperature  in  the  still 
rises,  and  when  it  has  reached  about  400°  F.  the 
distillation  begins. 

Shortly  after  this  the  live  steam  is  injected  into 
the  oil  through  perforated  pipes  placed  near  the 
bottom  of  the  still.  No  water  accumulates  in  the 
still  because  the  temperature  is  too  high.  The  steam 
passes  upward  through  the  oil  as  an  inert  gas  and 
passes  through  the  condenser  with  the  oil  vapors,  and 
is  condensed  there  with  the  oil.  The  effect  of  this 
current  of  steam  through  the  oil  is  exactly  that  of  a 
vacuum  distillation;  i.  e.,  it  lowers  the  boiling  point 
of  the  oil  in  distillation  and  allows  a  heavy  oil  to  be 
distilled  at  temperatures  below  the  temperature  of 
destructive  distillation.  It  will  be  noted  that 
cracking  sets  in  about  630°  F.  Without  the  use  of 
steam,  the  distillation  in  question  would  require  that 
the  still  be  heated  to  about  750°  F.  This  would 
result  in  the  destruction  of  the  desired  oil.     With 


GASOLINE 151 

steam  it  can  be  carried  on  with  a  maximum  tem- 
perature of  600°  F.,  thus  entirely  avoiding  destructive 
distillation. 

The  paraffin  oil  stock  is  a  dark-colored  unat- 
tractive-looking material  which  is  transformed  into 
the  valuable  paraffin  oils  of  commerce  by  treating 
with  sulphuric  acid  in  the  manner  already  described. 
The  treating  loss  in  this  case  is  from  ten  per  cent  to 
thirty  per  cent.  The  whole  cracking  process  de- 
scribed thus  far  is  designed  to  produce  the  maximum 
yield  of  gasoline  and  lamp  oil  from  crudes  containing 
asphalt. 

Now  taking  up  the  method  of  refining  the  light- 
colored  non-asphaltic  crude  oils  from  which  the 
valuable  cylinder  oil  may  be  made.  The  object  in 
this  case  is  to  avoid  all  destructive  distillation,  in 
order  to  produce  the  maximum  yield  of  the  very 
heavy  lubricating  oils.  The  still  is  charged  with  the 
crude  oil,  fires  are  lighted,  the  crude  naphtha  is 
distilled  off  as  in  the  other  distillations;  but  when 
the  temperature  is  well  above  the  boiling  point  of 
water,  steam  is  injected  into  the  oil  as  before 
described. 

Under  these  conditions  the  crude  naphtha  has 
distilled  off  when  the  temperature  in  the  still  has 
reached  about  280°  F.,  while  without  steam  the  still 


152  GASOLINE 


temperature  was  about  375°  F.     The  yield  from  this 
kind  of  crude  is  about  thirteen  per  cent. 

The  heating  is  continued,  more  and  more  steam 
being  injected,  the  distillate  becoming  heavier  and 
heavier,  until  the  heavy  crude  naphtha  has  distilled 
off.  At  this  point  the  temperature  in  the  still  lias 
reached  about  330°  F.,  while  without  steam  at  this 
point  the  temperature  was  475°  F.  The  yield  of  this 
oil  is  about  thirteen  per  cent. 

TESTING  GASOLINE 

Gasoline  for  use  in  automobiles  must  meet 
several  requirements.  It  must  be  readily  volatile, 
i.  e.,  pass  into  the  vapor  form  readily,  especially  in 
cold  weather.  This  is  particularly  desirable  when 
the  engine  is  first  started  and  when  the  different  parts 
are  cold.  After  the  engine  and  carburetor  have  run 
a  while  and  the  various  parts  have  become  heated, 
very  low-grade  gasoline  or  naphtha  can  be  used,  even 
kerosene.  But  it  is  difficult  to  vaporize  these  sub- 
stances when  cold,  and  thus  introduce  them  into  the 
engine  cylinders. 

Gasoline  should  not  have  too  wide  a  range  of 
boiling  points,  and  especially  the  upper  boiling  points 
should  not  be  too  high.  When  this  is  the  case,  it  is 
difficult  to  satisfactorily  vaporize  the  gasoline.     The 


GASOLINE  153 


portions  of  low-boiling  point  vaporize  satisfactorily, 
but  those  of  high-boiling  point  do  not;  hence,  the 
gasoline  does  not  give  uniform  service. 

If  much  of  the  high-boiling  portions  are  present, 
they  have  a  tendency  to  carbonize  the  motor  and 
cause  smoking. 

The  more  of  the  low-boiling  parts  that  are  pres- 
ent, the  easier  it  is  to  start  a  motor,  and  the  latter 
responds  more  quickly  to  any  additional  amount 
that  may  be  introduced  into  the  cylinders.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  high-boiling  parts  give  more  power. 

Gasoline  is  practically  always  bought  on  the 
specific-gravity  basis.  Baume  Scale.  That  used  in 
pleasure  cars  is  not  the  same  as  that  used  five  years 
ago.  One  can  scarcely  buy  high-test  gasoline  now 
except  at  a  high  price.  It  has  come  down  in  test 
from  72°  Be.  to  60°. .  Most  of  that  sold  at  present 
ranges  from  58°  to  62°. 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  GRAVITY  OF 
GASOLINE 

The  test  of  the  gravity  is  made  with  an  instru- 
ment called  a  hydrometer.  This  is  an  instrument 
made  of  glass  and  consists  of  three  parts:  (1)  The 
upper  part,  a  stem  or  fine  tube  of  uniform  diameter; 
(2)  A  bulb  or  enlargement  of  the  tube  containing 


154  GASOLINE 


air,  and  (3)  A  small  bulb  at  the  bottom  containing 
shot  or  mercury  that  causes  the  instrument  to  float 
in  a  vertical  position.  The  graduations  are  figures 
representing  either  specific  gravity,  or  in  numbers  of 
an  arbitrary  scale,  as  Baume's,  Twaddell's,  Beck's 
and  other  hydrometers. 

The  gravity  is  not  necessarily  a  good  criterion  of 
the  suitability  of  a  gasoline  for  a  particular  purpose, 
as  for  an  automobile.  A  result  will  be  obtained  with 
the  hydrometer  that  shows  the  average  of  the  gravi- 
ties of  the  different  compounds  that  are  in  the  gaso- 
line. For  instance,  a  very  light  gasoline  of  85°  Be. 
may  be  mixed  with  naphtha  of  50°  Be.,  resulting  in  a 
mixture  having  a  gravity  of  62°  Be.,  ordinarily  con- 
sidered a  suitable  automobile  fuel.  But  in  the  50° 
naphtha  there  may  have  been  contained  some  very 
high-boiling  compounds,  and  in  the  85°  gasoline 
some, very  low-boiling  ones,  so  that  the  mixture  has  a 
wide  range  of  boiling  points,  and  considerable  diffi- 
culty follows  in  using  the  mixture.  Much  difficulty 
on  this  account  resulted  in  the  early  days  of  blending 
"Casinghead"  gasoline  with  low-grade  naphthas. 

FRACTIONATION  ANALYSIS  OF  GASOLINE 

Better  information  regarding  a  particular  gasoline 
can  be  obtained  from  the  fractionation  analysis  of 


G  ASOLIN  E 155 

gasoline.  By  this  process  the  gasoline  can  he  di- 
vided into  different  parts  or  fractions,  and  good 
information  obtained  regarding  the  range  of  boiling 
points. 

The  fractionation  analysis  or  distillation  test  of 
a  sample  of  gasoline  on  a  laboratory  scale  is  made  in 
essentially  the  same  manner  as  the  commercial 
large-scale  distillation  of  crude  oil  is  conducted.  The 
gasoline  is  slowly  heated,  and,  as  the  temperature 
rises,  different  portions  of  the.  distillate  are  collected 
in  different  receivers.  In  this  way  one  can  determine 
as  clearly  as  is  desired  the  proportions  of  the  sample 
that  boil  at  different  temperatures.  Gasoline,  like 
crude  oil,  is  a  liquid  mixture  containing  many  differ- 
ent compounds  of  different  boiling  points. 

The  following  table  shows  the  fractionation 
analysis  of  several  different  grades  of  gasoline  that 
were  purchased  on  the  open  market. 


156 


GASOLINE 


SEPARATION  OF  DIFFERENT    GRADES    OF 
GASOLINE  INTO  FRACTIONS   BY 
DISTILLATION 
60-62°  Be.  Gasoline 


Percentage 

by  Weight  of 

Different 

Fractions 

Specific  Grav- 

Gravity of 

Temperature 

Boiling  at 

ity  of 

Different 

Different 

Fahrenheit 

Different 

Fr 

actions 

Fractions 

Scale 

Temperatures 

(Water  =  1) 

Be.  Scale 

Up  to  122° 

3.3     . 

.64 

90.1 

122°  to  155° 

11.3 

.68 

77.4 

155°  to  212° 

26.8 

.71 

66.6 

212°  to  257° 

26.8 

.74 

60.2 

257°  to  302° 

19.1 

.76 

55 . 4 

302°  to  347° 

9.1 

.77 

51.1 

Residue 

2.5 

.80 

45.0 

Loss 

1.1 

Total, 


100.0 


Total, 


73-76°  Be.  Gasoline 


Up  to  122° 

18.9 

.63 

91.2 

122°  to  155° 

28.9 

.67 

79.3 

155°  to  212° 

30.4 

.71 

68.3 

212°  to  257° 

16.2 

.73 

61.8 

Residue 

4.6 

.76 

55 . 4 

Loss 

1.0 

100.0 


GASOLINE 


157 


CASINGHEAD  GASOLINE  (WEATHERED; 


Up  to  122° 

30.0 

.63 

92.2 

122°  to  155° 

28.5 

.67 

80.2 

155°  to  212° 

24.4 

.71 

67.5 

212°  to  257° 

9.8 

.73 

61.0 

Residue 

G.7 

.77 

52 . 5 

Loss 

.6 

Total 


100.0 


BLENDED  GASOLINE 

(c; 

^SINGHE 

:ad  gas( 

LINE  AND  REFINERY  GASOLINE) 

Percentage 

by  Weight  of 

Different 

Fractions 

Specific  Grav- 

Gravity  of 

Temperature 

Boiling  at         itt  of 

Different 

Different 

Fahrenheit 

Different 

Fr 

actions 

Fractions 

Scale 

Temperatures 

(Water  =  1) 

Be.  Scale 

Up  to  122° 

7.9 

.63 

92.2 

122°  to  155° 

8.9 

.68 

77.4 

155°  to  212° 

16.4 

.72 

65.8 

212°  to  257° 

23.4 

.74 

59 . 5 

257°  to  302° 

21.9 

.76 

54.7 

302°  to  347° 

15.0 

.77 

50.4 

Residue 

5.9 

.80 

44.8 

Loss 

.6 

158  GASOLINE 


The  following  fractionation  analysis  represents  a 
sample  of  gasoline  recently  purchased  by  the  author 
of  this  book.  The  seller  represented  it  to  be  68°  to 
70°  Be.  The  price  was  twenty-seven  cents  per 
gallon.     It  actually  tested  64.5°  Be. 

FRACTIONATION  ANALYSIS  OF  GASOLINE 

BOUGHT  AS  68°  to  70°  BE. 

Actual  Specific  Gravity  —  64.5°  Be. 

Percentage  of  Different 

Temperature  Fahrenheit  Fractions  Boiling  at 

Scale  Different  Temperatures 

Up  to  122°  7 .  7 

122°  to  155°  6.1 

155°  to  212°  7.7 

212°  to  257°  6.5 

257°  to  302°  24.4 

302°  to  347°  28.7 

347°  to  405°  11.9 

Residue  3 . 0 

Loss  1.0 

It  will  be  observed  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
above  gasoline  boiled  above  300°  F.,  about  forty-four 
per  cent. 

This  is  typical  of  some  of  the  gasoline  that  is  being 
sold  on  the  market  to-day  as  high-grade  gasoline. 
A  user  of  this  gasoline,  the  owner  of  a  small  four- 


GASOLINE  159 


cylinder  ear,  complained  about  his  difficulty  in 
starting  his  car  on  a  moderately  warm  day.  The 
gasoline  would  not  evaporate  from  the  hand  except 
on  very  long  standing.  It  contained  considerable 
kerosene. 

For  comparison  the  fractionation  analysis  of  a 
sample  of  kerosene  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

FRACTIONATION  ANALYSIS  OF  KEROSENE 

Specific  Gravity  47°  Be.  at  60°  F 

Percentage  of  Different 

Temperature  Fahrenheit  Fractions  Boiling  at 

Scale  Different  Temperatures 

Up  to  257°  1 . 8 

257°  to  302°  10.0 

302°  to  347°  9 . 4 

347°  to  405°  22.4 

405°  to  445°  24.2 

445°  to  485°  13.5 

485°  to  531°  15.2 

Residue  2 . 0 

Loss  1 . 5 

Total,  100.0 

The  wide  difference  between  the  fractionation 
analysis  of  kerosene  and  gasoline  is  noticeable.  In 
the  case  of  kerosene  only  about  twelve  per  cent 


160 GASOLINE 

boiled  below  300°  F.,  while  practically  all  of  good 
gasoline  should  boil  below  350°  F.,  at  the  most. 

"  CRACKING  "  PROCESSES 

The  supply  of  gasoline  by  simple  fractional  dis- 
tillation does  not  equal  the  demand.  Hence, 
recourse  has  been  had  to  some  process  of  increasing 
the  production  of  gasoline  from  crude  oil,  and  a  proc- 
ess that  is  used  is  the  so-called  "Cracking"  process, 
a  widely  used  term  for  destructive  distillation. 
Some  "cracking"  or  destructive  distillation  occurs 
in  ordinary  distillation  processes,  but  usually  in 
comparatively  small  amount. 

It  has  been  known  for  a  long  time  that  when 
petroleum  is  subjected  to  high  temperatures,  and 
especially  when  heated  to  high  temperatures  and  high 
pressure  both,  that  "cracking"  occurs,  meaning 
that  some  of  the  heavy  and  higher  boiling  con- 
stituents break  up  into  lighter  compounds.  In  other 
words  a  greater  yield  of  gasoline  and  naphtha  and  a 
smaller  yield  of  kerosene  and  other  heavy  con- 
stituents is  obtained  than  by  the  ordinary  distillation 
process. 

In  describing  the  "cracking"  process,  a  rough 
and  homely  comparison  can  be  made  between  a 
barrel  of  crude  oil  and  a  pile  of  cobblestones.     The 


GASOLINE  161 


ordinary  distillation  of  petroleum  and  its  separation 
into  different  constituents  as  long  practised  may  be 
compared  to  the  sorting  of  a  pile  of  different  sized 
cobblestones  in  several  smaller  piles  containing 
stones  of  the  same  size.  If  the  pile  of  smaller  sized 
stones  is  not  adequate  to  meet  the  demand  for  them, 
recourse  can  be  had  to  the  breaking  up  or  cracking 
of  the  larger  stones  into  smaller  ones.  Similarly 
with  petroleum.  If,  by  the  ordinary  method  of 
separating  petroleum  into  its  fractions,  the  yield  of 
certain  constituents  of  low  molecular  weight,  i.  e., 
the  gasoline  and  naphtha,  is  not  sufficient,  then 
recourse  can  be  had  to  the  cracking  of  the  heavier 
bodies,  i.  e.,  the  kerosenes  and  other  heavy  con- 
stituents into  gasoline  and  naphtha. 

The  cracking  process  may  be  said  to  date  from  its 
accidental  discovery  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  by  a  refinery 
workman  in  the  year  1861. 

In  the  cracking  of  heavy  oils  two  factors  largely 
govern  the  course  of  the  reactions  that  take  place, 
namely,  temperature  and  pressure.  The  function  of 
the  increased  temperature  is  to  break  the  bonds  of 
groups  that  make  up  the  complex  hydrocarbon 
molecule.  In  many  processes,  pressure  is  of  chief 
importance  in  controlling  the  temperature  of  dis- 


162 GASOLINE 

tillation,  but  it  also  exerts  an  influence  on  the  nature 
of  the  reactions  produced. 

The  temperature  at  which  "cracking"  takes 
place  with  the  desired  rapidity  is  usually  above  the 
boiling  point  of  the  hydrocarbons  concerned.  When 
no  pressure  is  employed,  these  hydrocarbons  will 
vaporize  and  pass  out  of  the  reacting  sphere,  the 
degree  of  alteration  being  small.  If,  however, 
sufficient  pressure  is  employed  to  raise  the  boiling 
point  to  a  temperature  causing  more  rapid  cracking, 
alteration  into  desired  products  may  be  obtained 
with  a  minimum  of  total  decomposition. 

The  first  processes  for  the  recovery  of  lighter 
boiling  hydrocarbons  from  heavier  hydrocarbons 
were  used  for  the  production  of  burning  oils.  The 
first  patent  of  this  character  was  that  granted  to 
James  Young  in  England,  in  1865.  The  distillation 
was  conducted  in  a  closed  vessel  provided  with  a 
loaded  valve,  which  was  set  so  the  vapors  could 
escape  at  any  desired  pressure.  A  pressure  of  ten 
to  twenty  pounds  per  square  inch  is  specified,  and 
the  patent  seems  to  be  directed  to  the  recovery  of 
burning  oils  from  Scottish  shale  oils.  Other  patents 
have  been  issued  to  Benton,  U.  S.,  1886;  Dewar 
and  Redwood,  England,  1889;  Ragosin,  England, 
1898;  Burton,  United  States,  1913;  Bacon  and  Clark, 


GASOLINE  163 


United  States,  1914;  Humphries,  United  States, 
1914;  Hall,  England,  1913;  Rittman,*  United  States, 
1916,  and  many  others. 

MOTOR  SPIRITS 

Much  interest  has  been  aroused  in  technical  and 
trade  circles  over  the  introduction  of  "motor  spirits  " 
by  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  "Motor  spirits" 
are  prepared  by  a  special  "cracking"  process  of 
distillation  of  petroleum,  and  was  worked  out  by 
Dr.  W.  M.  Burton,  a  director  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  of  Indiana.  The  patent  which  was 
issued  January  7,  1913,  describes  a  method  of  treat- 
ing liquid  portions  of  petroleum  having  a  boiling 
point  upward  of  500°  F.,  to  obtain  therefrom  low 
boiling-point  products.  In  other  words,  transform- 
ing petroleum  products  that  are  heavy  and  unsuited 
for  use  in  automobile  engines  into  a  liquid  that  can 
be  used  for  such  a  purpose.  The  distillation  process 
is  conducted  under  a  pressure  of  from  sixty  to 
seventy-five  pounds  per  square  inch  and  at  tempera- 
tures varying  from  650°  to  850°  F.  The  distillate 
is  condensed  in  the  usual  way. 

The    resulting    "motor    spirit"    has    a    slightly 

*Patent  applied  for. 


164  GASOLINE 


yellowish  color  and,  compared  to  a  straight  refinery 
distillate  of  59°  B,  has  the  following  characteristics: 

Comparison  of  "  Motor  Spirits  " 
and  Gasoline 

Specific  Gravity  Boiling  Point 

Product                           Be.  Scale  °F 

Motor  Spirits                              55  95  to  500 

Gasoline                                       59  110  to  350 

As  compared  to  gasoline,  "motor  spirit"  has  a 
slightly  lower  gravity,  showing  a  higher  carbon  con- 
tent, meaning  that  more  mileage  can  be  obtained 
from  it  than  from  gasoline.  One  should  be  able  to 
start  a  motor  easier  with  it,  because  it  starts  to  boil 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  gasoline  does.  Because 
it  has  a  higher  range  of  boiling  points  it  should  be 
more  difficult  to  convert  it  entirely  into  the  vapor 
form,  and,  therefore,  it  should  be  more  liable  to 
carbonize  the  motor  cylinders  and  cause  smoking. 
The  fact  that  "motor  spirit"  does  carbonize  cylin- 
ders and  emit  a  small  amount  of  smoke  in  the  ex- 
haust makes  it  more  or  less  unsuitable  for  pleasure- 
car  use.  With  the  slower  speed  motors  and  more 
constant  running  conditions  present  in  motor  trucks, 
however,  these  objections  are  not  so  pronounced. 

The  chief  merit  of  the  product  lies  in  the  fact  that 


GASOLINE  165 


it  will  take  the  place  of  gasoline  in  many  instances, 
such  as  for  use  in  stationary  engines,  traction  en- 
gines, trucks,  etc.,  and  that  it  helps  dispel,  for  a 
time  at  least,  the  bugbear  of  a  gasoline  shortage. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  has  installed  the 
Burton  process  at  Whiting,  Indiana,  at  Alton, 
Illinois,  at  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  at  Casper, 
Wyoming,  and  at  other  places.  Fully  a  million 
barrels  of  "motor  spirit"  were  produced  in  1915,  and 
for  1916  this  amount  will  be  increased  to  fully  three 
million   barrels. 

THE  "  RITTMAN  "  PROCESS  OF  CRACKING 
PETROLEUM   TO   OBTAIN   GASOLINE 

A  process  for  cracking  petroleum  to  obtain 
gasoline  has  been  perfected  and  patented  by  Walter 
F.  Rittman,  an  employee  of  the  LTnited  States 
Bureau  of  Mines.  The  process  can  be  used  by  any- 
body in  the  United  States,  free  of  charge,  after 
making  proper  representations  to  the  Bureau  of 
Mines,  Washington,  D.  C. 

This  process  differs  from  most  "cracking"  pro- 
cesses, in  that  the  reactions  are  made  to  take  place 
entirely  in  what  is  known  as  the  vapor  phase.  In 
other  words,  instead  of  heating  and  compressing  the 
liquid  petroleum  and  its  vapor  together,  the  petro- 


166  GASOLINE 


leum  is  first  vaporized,  and  this  vapor  is  heated  and 
compressed.  The  most  favorable  conditions  for 
gasoline  and  production  are  temperatures  of  about 
900°  F.,  and  pressures  higher  than  ninety  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

The  apparatus  consists  essentially  of  a  vessel  for 
vaporizing  the  oil,  a  heater,  where  the  oil  vapor  is 
heated  and  compressed,  and  a  condenser  for  col- 
lecting the  products. 

There  are  several  companies  building  plants 
to  operate  this  process  in  the  United  States  under 
license  from  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines. 
The  material  produced  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
"motor  spirits"  of  the  "Burton"  process. 

In  the  following  table  there  is  given  the  results  of 
cracking  a  petroleum  distillate  with  boiling  points 
between  482°  F.  and  662°  F.,  i.e.,  a  high  boiling 
"cut"  from  crude  oil  was  cracked  in  order  to  con- 
vert as  much  of  it  as  possible  into  gasoline.* 


*Taken  from  Bulletin  111},  Bureau  of  Mines. 


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168  GASOLINE 


It  will  be  observed  {hat,  starting  with  a  petroleum 
distillate  containing  hydrocarbons  of  even  higher 
boiling  points  than  kerosene  contains,  gasoline  was 
obtained  varying  in  amount  between  fourteen  and 
thirty-six  per  cent  of  the  original  distillate. 

To  date  most  of  the  experiments  with  the  Ritt- 
man  process,  as  regards  gasoline  production,  have 
been  with  high-boiling  petroleum  distillates  and  not 
with  crude  petroleum,  although  the  process  is  applica- 
ble to  crude  petroleum  as  well.  In  using  the  latter 
an  excessive  amount  of  carbon  is  formed  that  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  take  care  of. 

CRACKING  OIL  BY  MEANS  OF  ALUMINUM 
CHLORIDE 

Aluminum  chloride  is  a  substance  of  much  in- 
terest, largely  because  of  its  effect  on  certain  chemical 
reactions.  Messrs.  Friedel  and  Crafts,  two  German 
chemists,  investigated  its  properties  in  this  respect 
forty  years  ago.  They  found  that  substances 
reacted  with  each  other  in  the  presence  of  aluminum 
chloride  in  appreciable  or  large  degree  when  other- 
wise the  reactions  were  practically  inappreciable. 
Friedel  and  Crafts  found  that  aluminum  chloride 
had  a  catalytic  effect  on  oils  that  to-day  is  of  decided 
commercial  interest,  namely,  the  property  of  break- 


GASOLINE  169 


ing  down  or  " cracking'"  high  boiling  oils  into  lower 
boiling  oils,  i.  e.<  into  gasoline.  In  using  aluminum 
chloride,  the  crude  oil  is  distilled  in  the  ordinary  way 
until  the  naturally  occurring  gasoline  and  kerosene, 
if  there  be  any  present,  is  distilled  off.  As  the  next 
step,  anhydrous  aluminum  chloride  is  added  to  the 
remaining  residual  oil,  and  the  latter  heated  to  boil- 
ing. Boiling  is  usually  around  500°  F.,  and  generally 
remains  between  500°  and  550°  F.,  during  the  entire 
distillation  extending  over  a  period  of  twenty-four 
to  twenty-eight  hours.  By  this  method  the  yield 
of  gasoline  may  be  increased  as  much  as  one  hundred 
to  two  hundred  per  cent.  A.  M.  McAfee,*  of  the 
Gulf  Refining  Company,  has  patented  an  application 
of  the  use  of  aluminum  chloride  for  "cracking"  oils 
and  the  recovery  of  the  reagent  for  use  over  and 
over  again. 

I  McAfee  maintains  that  the  gasoline  produced  by 
the  aluminum  chloride  process  is  sweet  smelling  and 
water  white,  and  that  the  carbon  deposited  in  the 
reaction  is  a  granular  cokey  mass  easily  removed  from 
the  still,  and  that  the  process  has  advantages  over 
high  pressure  cracking  operations,  because  the  prod- 
uct obtained  in  the  latter  is  foul  smelling  and  yellow 

*Met.  and  Chem.    Eng.    Vol.  XIII,  1915,  page  592. 


170  GASOLINE 


and  needs  purifying  with  sulphuric  acid  before  it 
can  be  marketed.  He  claims  a  further  advantage 
in  the  use  of  the  aluminum  chloride  process  because 
there  is  no  need  of  employing  extra  pressure  or 
vacuum  or  special  apparatus;  any  still  with  a  stirrer 
in  it  suffices. 

"CASINGHEAD"   GASOLINE 

During  the  year  1914,  there  was  produced  about 
forty-three  million  gallons  of  so-called  "casinghead" 
or  natural  gas  gasoline.  This  is  gasoline  that  is 
obtained  from  natural  gas  by  compressing  and 
cooling  the  latter,  or,  to  put  it  in  a  more  popular  way, 
by  squeezing  gasoline  out  of  natural  gas.* 

The  natural  gas  used  for  this  purpose  is  that  which 
comes  from  oil  wells,  or  so-called  "wet"  natural  gas. 
This  natural  gas  is  found  in  oil  wells,  for  natural  gas 
always  accompanies  oil  in  the  well.  In  contact  with 
oil  in  the  well  it  picks  up  or  mixes  with  some  of  the 
lighter  parts  of  the  oil,  i.  e.,  the  gasoline,  and  carries 
the  latter  out  of  the  well  with  it.  The  amount  that  is 
carried  out  varies  widely  with  different  gases.  Some- 
times tbe  amount  is  so  small  that  it  does  not  pay  to 
erect  a  plant  to  squeeze  the  gasoline  out.     Those 

*Burrell,  G.  A.  "The  Condensation  of  Gasoline  from 
Natural  Gas."     Bulletin  88,  Bureau  of  Mines. 


GASOLINE  171 


natural  gases  that  contain  less  than  about  one  and 
one-quarter  gallons  per  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of 
gas  are  not  treated.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
natural  gases  carry  as  much  as  four  gallons  of  gasoline 
per  thousand  cubic  feet. 

That  gasoline  can  be  extracted  from  natural  gas 
has  long  been  known,  ever  since  gasoline  has  been 
noticed  in  pipe  lines  that  carry  natural  gas,  but  it  is 
only  within  recent  years  that  the  production  of 
gasoline  from  natural  gas  has  been  a  commercial 
success,  owing  principally  to  the  ever-increasing 
demand  for  gasoline. 

A.  Fasenmeyer  made  gasoline  from  the  gas  of  oil 
wells,  near  Titusville,  Pennsylvania,  in  the  fall  of 
1904.  His  plant  is  almost  within  sight  of  the  old 
Drake  well.  His  first  equipment  was  crude.  The 
gas  from  the  wells,  after  passing  the  gas  pumps  used 
for  withdrawing  the  gas,  was  cooled  by  means  of  a 
coil  of  pipe  placed  in  a  tank  of  water,  and  the  gasoline 
condensed  out  allowed  to  drip  into  a  wooden  barrel. 
Tompsett  Brothers,  of  Tidioute,  Pennsylvania,  claim 
to  have  preceded  Fasenmeyer  in  the  making  of  a 
commercial  venture  out  of  the  process.  They  are 
operating  successfully  at  the  present  time. 

As  these  ventures  proved  commercially  successful, 
attention  was  turned  to  the  designing  of  better  plant 


172  GASOLINE 


equipment.  Gas  and  oil  operators  in  other  oil  fields 
proceeded  to  install  gasoline  plants. 

The  method  in  common  use  at  the  present  time 
consists  in  withdrawing  natural  gas  from  oil  wells  by 
means  of  suction  pumps,  and  then  compressing  this 
gas  to  a  pressure  of  about  fifteen  to  forty  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Next  the  gas  is  passed  through  coils  of 
pipe  on  which  running  water  falls.  A  receptacle 
is  provided  for  catching  any  gasoline  that  may  be 
obtained  at  this  stage  of  the  process.  Next  the  gas 
is  compressed  in  another  compressor  at  a  pressure  of 
about  two  hundred  pounds  per  square  inch,  and 
again  cooled.  The  largest  amount  of  gasoline  is  ob- 
tained by  means  of  this  second  compression  and 
cooling. 

The  product  obtained  is  usually  a  very  light 
gasoline  or  "wild,"  as  it  is  known  in  trade  circles. 
Upon  exposure  to  the  air  a  large  part  of  it  evaporates 
or  "weathers"  in  a  comparatively  short-time.  This 
loss  of  gasoline  by  "weathering"  may  amount  to  as 
much  as  four  and  five-tenths  to  twenty-four  per  cent 
after  one  hour's  exposure,  and  as  much  as  fifty  to 
seventy  per  cent  in  extreme  cases  at  the  end  of 
twenty-four  hours. 

This  weathering  constituted  a  decided  loss; 
hence,  attention  was  turned  to  some  method  of  pre- 


GASOLINE  173 


venting  it.  In  addition,  the  gasoline  as  obtained 
direct  from  the  plants  was  more  dangerous  to 
handle  than  ordinary  refinery  gasoline,  because  it 
passed  into  the  gaseous  form  quickly  and,  hence, 
would  quickly  render  air  explosive.  It  also  devel- 
oped so  much  pressure  on  standing  in  closed  con- 
tainers that  it  was  dangerous  to  ship.  In  most  cases, 
because  of  its  high  vapor  pressure,  it  could  not  be 
shipped  in  ordinary  tank  cars,  but  had  to  be  trans- 
ported in  steel  drums. 

The  problem  of  saving  the  waste  from  "weather- 
ing" and  of  transporting  it  was  finally  partly  met 
by  blending  or  mixing  it  with  naphtha  of  about 
50°  to  55°  Be.  specific  gravity.  In  many  cases  the 
casinghead  gasoline  and  naphtha  are  mixed  in  about 
equal  proportions.  It  is  best  to  perform  the  mixing 
as  soon  as  possible.  The  resulting  blend  is  inter- 
mediate in  gravity  and  volatility  and  vapor  pressure 
between  the  "casinghead"  gasoline  and  the  naphtha. 
A  further  advantage  arises  from  the  fact  that  naph- 
tha of  too  low  grade  for  use  in  motor  cars  is  brought 
to  a  state  where  it  can  be  so  used. 

When  this  mixing  of  casinghead  gasoline  and 
naphtha  is  properly  performed  the  "blend"  is 
suitable  for  use  in  motor  cars.  The  largest  part  of 
the  forty-three  million  gallons  of  casinghead  gasoline, 


174  GASOLINE 


produced  in  1914,  was  treated  in  this  manner,  and 
the  blend  used  in  automobiles. 

Some  dissatisfaction  in  the  early  days  of  the  in- 
dustry (and  at  present)  arose  from  the  fact  that 
jobbers,  in  preparing  the  material  for  market,  used 
naphtha  of  too  low  a  grade  or  used  too  large  a  pro- 
portion of  naphtha.  This  of  course  resulted  in 
dissatisfied  customers;  hence,  producers  and  jobbers 
in  the  main  see  to  it  that  satisfactory  material  is 
prepared  at  the  present  time. 

If  a  very  low-grade  naphtha  is  used  in  the  blend 
of  naphtha  and  casinghead  gasoline,  there  results  a 
mixture  that  is  not  uniform  of  composition.  In 
other  words,  the  range  of  boiling  points  is  too  far 
apart,  and  there  are  too  many  compounds  present 
of  high  boiling  point,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  vaporize 
the  material  in  its  use  in  motors.  In  addition,  too 
large  a  proportion  of  naphtha  or  too  low-grade 
naphtha  results  in  carbonization  of  the  motor. 

However,  proof  that  casinghead  gasoline  finds 
many  satisfied  customers  lies  in  the  fact  that  for  the 
year  1916  probably  one  hundred  million  gallons 
will  be  disposed  of.  A  great  deal  of  it  is  used  for 
mixing  with  the  "cracked"  gasoline  obtained  from 
the  Burton  process. 

Alone  and  unblended  with  naphtha  some  of  it 


GASOLINE  175 


makes  an  excellent  fuel  for  use  in  gasoline  (air  gas) 
machines  that  are  used  in  lighting  isolated  houses 
and  other  places.  In  this  process  air  is  made  to  mix 
with  or  pass  through  liquid  gasoline,  thereby  "pick- 
ing up  "  or  carrying  with  it  some  of  the  gasoline  vapor. 
This  mixture  of  air  and  gasoline  is  then  fed  to 
burners  (incandescent  mantles)  for  lighting  pur- 
poses, or  used  for  other  purposes. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  COMPRESSOR  TYPE  OF 
NATURAL  GAS  —  GASOLINE  PLANT  * 

In  Figures  2  and  3  are  shown  the  plan  and  ele- 
vation of  a  plant  for  making  gasoline  from  natural 
gas  by  the  compression  method. 

The  gas  from  the  wells  enters  the  plant  by  means 
of  a  gas  line.  After  passing  through  a  drip  tank 
(B)  for  the  removal  of  oil  that  might  be  carried  with 
the  gas  it  partly  circles  the  compressor  building  and 
enters  a  low-stage  compressor;  after  compression  it  is 
conducted  to  low-stage  cooling  coils,  and  thence  to 
the  high-stage  compressor  (E).  From  this  compres- 
sor it  passes  to  cooling  coils  (F),  and  is  from  them 
expanded  into  cooling  coils  (G).     The  condensate  is 

*Burrell,  G.  A.;  Seibert,  F.  M.;  Oberfell,  G.  G.  "The 
Condensation  of  Gasoline  from  Natural  Gas."  Bulletin  88, 
Bureau  of  Mines,  1915,  pag^  54. 


176 GASOLINE 

trapped  into  the  accumulation  tank  (H).  The  resi- 
due gas  stripped  of  its  gasoline  is  sent  to  places  of 
consumption. 

THE  EXTRACTION  OF  GASOLINE  FROM 
NATURAL  GAS  BY  ABSORPTION  METHODS* 

A  new  process  of  extracting  gasoline  from  natural 
gas  has  lately  come  into  use  that  threatens  to  rival 
the  "casinghead"  process  in  the  amount  of  gasoline 
that  will  be  obtained.  This  process  is  called  the  ab- 
sorption process,  because  the  natural  gas  is  passed 
through  a  heavy  oil  which  absorbs  or  dissolves  the 
gasoline  out  of  the  gas. 

Oils  are  used  whose  trade  names  are  "Straw  Oil" 
and  "Mineral  Seal  Oil."  They  are  heavier  than 
kerosene,  having  a  gravity  on  the  Baume  scale  of 
about  35°.     They  start  to  boil  at  about  430°  F. 

The  natural  gas  is  first  passed  through  the  oil  and, 
after  the  latter  has  absorbed  as  much  gasoline  as  it 
can,  it  is  passed  into  steam  stills  where  the  gasoline  is 
distilled  or  separated.  The  hot  oil,  freed  of  its 
gasoline,  is  then  cooled  by  passing  it  through  coils  of 

*The  Extraction  of  Gasoline  from  Natural  Gas  by  Ab- 
sorption Methods,  by  G.  A.  Burrell,  P.  M.  Biddison  and  G.  G, 
Oberfell.  Proceedings  Natural  Gas  Association  of  America. 
1916. 


GASOLINE  177 


pipe  upon  which  cold  water  falls,  and  then  sent  to 
the  absorbers  where  it  can  receive  another  charge  of 
gasoline.  In  other  words,  the  process  is  continuous, 
the  oil  flowing  in  a  steady  stream  through  the  circuit, 
and  merely  acting  as  a  carrier  of  the  gasoline  from  the 
absorbers  to  the  steam  still. 

The  great  importance  of  this  process  lies  in  the 
fact  that  natural  gases  can  be  treated  that  are  very 
"lean,"  or  carry  only  a  small  amount  of  gasoline 
vapor.  The  "casinghead"  process,  described  in  the 
previous  chapter,  cannot  be  used  on  natural  gases 
that  carry  less  than  about  ten  pints  of  gasoline  per 
thousand  cubic  feet  of  gas,  while  the  absorption  proc- 
ess can  be  worked  on  natural  gases  that  carry  less 
than  one  pint  of  gasoline  per  thousand  cubic  feet. 

The  total  consumption  of  natural  gas  in  the 
United  States  in  1914  was  about  five  hundred  and 
ninety  billions  cubic  feet.  Most  of  this  gas  can  be 
treated  for  gasoline  by  the  absorption  process,  while 
it  is  exempt  as  far  as  the  "casinghead"  process  is 
concerned.  The  amount  of  gasoline  contained  in  it 
varies  between  one  and  three  pints  of  gasoline  per 
thousand  cubic  feet,  on  the  average.  The  gas  is 
that  used  in  cities,  towns  and  factories,  and  is  the 
so-called  "dry"  natural  gas  as  distinguished  from 
the    "wet"   or    "casinghead"    natural    gases    from 


178  GASOLINE 


which  gasoline  is  extracted  by  the  casinghead  or 
compression  method.  The  quantity  of  this  latter 
gas  treated  for  gasoline  in  the  year  1914  was 
about  seventeen  billion  cubic  feet.  The  absorption 
process  can  also  be  used  for  treating  casing- 
head  gas  that  is  too  lean  to  treat  by  compression 
methods. 

The  absorption  process  of  treating  natural  gas  is 
identical  with  a  process  used  at  the  present  time  for 
extracting  benzol  and  toluol  from  coke-oven  gases, 
except  that  in  the  case  of  the  natural  gas  the  ab- 
sorption is  usually  conducted  at  pressures  of  two 
hundred  pounds  per  square  inch,  or  higher.  The 
higher  pressure  is  used  because  the  gas  at  the  places 
where  it  is  most  economical  to  treat  it  exists  at  high 
pressures.  Natural  gas  is  compressed  to  high 
pressures  in  sending  it  tl  rough  pipe  lines  to  cities, 
because  a  larger  quantity  of  natural  gas  can  be  sent 
through  the  pipes  in  a  given  time  than  if  under  low 
pressures.  Since  the  principal  revenue  derived  from 
the  gas  is  through  the  sale  of  it  to  cities,  factories, 
etc.,  and  the  gasoline  recovery  is  just  a  by-product, 
every  effort  is  made  not  to  disturb  the  transportation 
system;  hence,  the  gas  is  treated  just  as  it  exists, 
i.e.,  under  high  pressures. 

A  fractionation  analysis  of  gasoline  obtained  by 


GASOLINE  170 


this   absorption   method   follows.     The   gravity     is 
about  80°  Be. 

DISTILLATION  TEST  OF  GASOLINE  MADE 
BY  THE  ABSORPTION  METHOD 

Distillation        Amount  of  Distillate  Gravity 
Temperature         by  Volume  Per  Cent       of  Distillate 

°F.  °Be. 

80—110  10  91.8 

110—124  10  89.0 

124—136  10  86.7 

136—146  10  83.4 

146  —  158  10  89.4 

158—172  10  77.4 

172—188  10  73.3 

188  —  208  10  70.2 

208  —  244  10  65.0 

244  —  290  3  63.1 

Loss  7 

Total,  100 

This  fractionation  analysis  shows  the  gasoline  to 
be  of  exceptional  high  grade. 

At  the  present  time  one  plant  is  in  operation 
at  Hastings,  West  Virginia,  that  treats  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  million  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day  by 
the    absorption    process,    extracting    about    twenty 


180  GASOLINE 


thousand   gallons   of   gasoline.     At   least    six   other 
plants  are  in  course  of  construction. 

The  extraction  of  gasoline  from  natural  gas 
by  absorption  in  oil  is  accomplished  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  The  gas  and  oil  pass  through  a 
pipe,  and  from  there,  by  means  of  many  small 
holes  in  the  pipe,  into  an  absorber,  where  the 
natural  gas,  in  intimate  contact  with  the  oil,  gives 
up  its  gasoline.  The  natural  gas  then  passes  out 
of  the  absorber  on  its  way  to  places  of  con- 
sumption. The  oil,  charged  with  gasoline,  passes 
to  a  weathering  tank,  where  the  lighter  portions 
of  the  gasoline  are  released  through  a  safety 
valve,  and  then  into  a  pump  that  forces  the  oil 
through  a  heat  exchanger  and  into  a  steam  still. 
Gasoline  is  distilled  out  of  the  oil  in  the  still  and 
flows  out  of  the  system  at  the  gasoline  drip.  The 
hot  oil,  freed  of  its  gasoline,  passes  through  the 
heat  exchanger,  where  it  gives  up  some  of  its 
heat  to  the  incoming  oil,  passes  into  an  oil  pump 
and  from  there  through  cooling  coils.  Water 
flows  over  these  coils  to  cool  the  oil.  Finally, 
the  oil  passes  into  the  absorber  again  to  receive 
another  charge  of  gasoline.  The  process  is  continu- 
ous, the  oil  being  used  over  and  over  again  and  sim- 


GASOLINE  181 


ply  acting  as  a  carrier  of  gasoline  from  the  absorber 
to  the  still. 

The  author  of  this  book  (G.  B.)  was  first  in  co- 
operation with  Messrs.  Biddison  and  Oberfell  to 
treat  casinghead  natural  gas  by  the  absorption 
method. 

GASOLINE  FROM  SHALE 

Lender  the  general  name  of  oil  shales  are  to  be 
found  in  many  countries  what  are  known  as  car- 
bonaceous- or  bituminous  shales,  which  yield,  when 
subjected  to  heat,  hydrocarbons  resembling  those 
that  comprise  crude  petroleum. 

Good  oil  shales  contain  from  twenty  to  thirty 
per  cent  of  volatile  matter  (matter  driven  off  by 
heat),  and  will  yield,  on  careful  distillation  in  modern 
stills  with  steam,  about  twenty  to  thirty  gallons  of 
oil  per  ton.  Some  shales  of  Scotland  and  Wales 
yield  as  much  as  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
gallons  of  oil  per  ton. 

Thickness  of  shale  seams  vary  greatly;  sometimes 
they  are  six  to  ten  or,  perhaps,  fifteen  feet  thick.  A 
great  deal  of  it  occurs  in  the  United  States,  in 
Colorado,  Northwestern  Utah  and  Southwestern 
Wyoming. 

The  high  cost  of  distilling  oil  as  compared  to  the 


182 GASOLINE 

cost  of  producing  oil  from  wells  has  thus  far  prevented 
the  development  in  the  L'nited  States  of  such  an 
industry  and  may  continue  to  prevent  it  for  some 
time,  but  sooner  or  later  this  great  source  of  supply 
will  be  utilized  to  supplement  the  decreasing  pro- 
duction from  the  regular  oil  fields. 

When  refined  by  ordinary  methods,  shale  oil 
yields  about  ten  per  cent  gasoline,  thirty-five  per 
cent  kerosene  and  a  large  amount  of  paraffin.  The 
yield  of  gasoline  can  probably  be  greatly  increased 
by  "cracking"  methods  of  distillation.  The  gas 
produced  in  the  distillation  is  of  good  quality,  and 
may  furnish  all  the  heat  needed  for  distillation. 

Ammonia  can  also  be  obtained  by  distilling  oil 
shales  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soil  fertilizers, 
for  which  there  is  an  ever  increasing  demand. 

Although  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
shale  industry  in  this  country,  yet  in  Scotland  it  is  a 
very  important  industry.  The  average  yield  of  oil 
from  the  Scotland  shales  is  much  less  than  that  which 
appears  possible  from  Utah  and  Colorado  shales. 
In  Colorado  alone  it  is  estimated  that  there  is  enough 
shale  in  beds  three  or  more  feet  thick  to  yield  twenty 
billion  barrels  of  crude  oil,  from  which  at  least  two 
billion  barrels  of  gasoline  may  be  extracted  by  ordi- 
nary refining  processes. 


GASOLINE  is:* 


The  development  of  this  enormous  reserve  simply 
awaits  the  time  when  the  price  of  gasoline  or  the 
demand  for  other  distillation  products  from  the 
shale  warrants  the  establishment  of  plants  to  work 
it.  This  may  happen  in  the  near  future.  At  all 
events,  these  shales  are  likely  to  be  drawn  upon  long 
before  the  exhaustion  of  the  petroleum  fields. 

NATURAL  GAS  FROM  FLOW  TANKS 

A  tremendous  volume  of  gas  yearly  escapes  in  the 
air  from  flowing  oil  wells.  This  is  so-called  flow- tank 
gas.  Oil  wells  that  flow  or  "gush"  do  so  because 
there  is  sufficient  gas  pressure  to  raise  the  oil  from 
the  sand  through  the  casing  of  the  well  and  often  to 
throw  it  high  into  the  air.  In  this  way  millions  of 
cubic  feet  of  gas  have  escaped  into  the  air.  If  there  is 
any  likelihood  of  a  well  being  a  producer,  a  flow  tank 
is  set  before  drilling  into  the  sand  and  is  connected 
to  the  casinghead  of  the  well  by  one  or  more  flow 
lines.  By  the  use  of  simple  and  well-known  oil 
savers  and  control  casingheads,  the  loss  of  oil  from 
a  flowing  well  can  be  made  very  slight. 

Not  so,  however,  with  the  gas.  When  a  well 
flows  into  a  tank,  it  has  been,  and  is,  a  general  rule 
that  the  gas  which  comes  with  the  oil  is  lost.  In 
some  cases  the  volume  of  the  gas  is  very  large  and  the 


184 GASOLINE 

production  of  oil  small,  so  that  the  intrinsic  value  of 
the  gas  is  much  the  greater  of  the  two.  Intrinsic 
value  is  stated  because  the  gas  has  no  commercial 
value  in  most  cases.  The  oil  can  be  stored  to  await 
a  market  and  can  be  transported  with  ease  on  account 
of  its  being  liquid  rather  than  a  gaseous  substance, 
while  a  gas,  once  above  the  ground,  must  have  an 
immediate  market. 

This  gas  goes  in  a  flow  tank  with  the  oil  and  there 
separates,  the  oil  being  drawn  off  into  receiving 
tanks  and  the  gas  passing  out  through  a  stack  into 
the  air.  This  gas  has  been  intimately  mixed  with 
the  oil  during  a  journey  of  perhaps  twenty-five 
hundred  feet  through  the  casing  of  the  well  and  flow 
line.  They  began  the  journey  together,  under  a 
high  pressure  that  drove  the  largest  possible  volume 
of  gas  into  solution  with  the  oil.  As  they  rose  toward 
the  surface  the  pressure  grew  less,  which  permitted 
the  gas  to  expand  and  to  escape  in  part  from  its 
solution  with  the  oil.  When  they  together  issued 
into  the  flow  tank  at  atmospheric  pressure,  the  gas 
had  fully  expanded  and  had  absorbed  from  the  oil 
the  largest  amount  possible  of  its  lightest  constitu- 
ents, i.  e.,  the  gasoline. 

This  flow  tank  gas,  although  carrying  a  large 
amount  of  gasoline  vapor,  usually  is  not  treated  by 


GASO  LINE  185 


compression  and  condensation  methods  for  gasoline 
extraction,  because  the  supply  is  temporary  and  un- 
certain. A  flowing  well  exhausts  its  pressure  more 
or  less  rapidly,  and  must  be  put  to  pumping.  In  a 
pumping  well  the  oil  and  gas  are  produced  separately, 
whereas  in  a  flowing  well  they  issue  together,  and  if 
the  gas  is  to  be  used  they  must  be  separated. 

However,  there  are  a  few  gasoline  plants  that 
operate  on  natural  gas  from  flowing  wells. 

SUBSTITUTES  FOR  GASOLINE 

A  perplexing  problem  bothering  automobile 
dealers,  oil  dealers  and  owners  of  cars  is  the  high 
and  increasing  price  of  gasoline  and  the  possibility 
of  cheap  substitutes  for  gasoline.  These  substitutes 
that  have  been  given  the  most  attention  are  kero- 
sene, benzol  and  alcohol. 

As  regards  kerosene,  many  automobile  dealers 
are  of  the  opinion  that  gasoline  will  have  to  reach  an 
almost  prohibitive  price  before  kerosene  will  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  pleasure-car  fuel.  They  state  that  with 
the  tendency  of  engine  builders  to  design  multiple 
cylinder  engines  (as  high  as  twelve  cylinders)  an 
even  more  volatile  and  higher  grade  gasoline  is 
required  than  is  at  present  used.  The  question  re- 
volves  itself    around    heating    the    engine.     On    a 


186  GASOLINE 


moderately  warm  day  an  engine  in  six-cylinder 
pleasure  cars  would  work  on  kerosene  once  it  was 
started,  but  on  a  cold  day  this  would  be  impossible. 
There  is  so  much  metal  to  conduct  heat  away  in  the 
multiple  cylinder  cars  that  a  film  of  oil  is  almost  like 
lard  until  the  engine  is  started. 

Another  difficulty  with  kerosene  has  to  do  with 
its  wide  range  of  boiling  points;  from  about  200°  to 
500°  F.  This  makes  it  difficult  to  secure  constant 
vaporizing  conditions.  To  remedy  this  in  traction 
engines,  etc.,  the  carburetor  is  jacketed  with  exhaust 
gases  from  the  engine  or  with  hot  water.  Most 
kerosene  carburetors  are  so  equipped  that  they  work 
on  gasoline  until  the  engine  is  heated,  further  com- 
plicating their  structure. 

It  is  claimed  that  electric  starting  systems  would 
be  impossible  with  kerosene  carburetors,  at  least  the 
type  now  in  use,  the  motor  not  being  heavy  enough 
to  heat  an  engine  to  the  point  where  it  would  start 
on  a  heavy  oil.  Car  owners  want  an  engine  that 
will  need  as  little  care  as  possible;  they  want  to  sit 
in  their  seats,  press  a  button,  and  move  down  the 
avenue.  If  a  choice  were  necessary,  there  are  many 
car  owners  who  would  not  drive  a  car  as  much  on 
kerosene  because  of  the  extra  trouble  required. 
There  are  many  changes  that  would  be  required  in 


(I  A  SOLI  NE  187 


the  carburetor  and  engine  if  kerosene  were  used. 
The  manifold  spark  plugs,  lubricating  oil  and 
clearance  all  would  play  a  part  in  getting  a  motor 
suitable  for  the  work. 

On  the  other  hand,  kerosene  is  already  being  used 
to  a  great  extent  in  tractors,  stationary  engines  and 
marine  engines.  But  operating  conditions  are  some- 
what different  than  in  the  case  of  pleasure  cars. 
Tractors  are  pulling  practically  all  the  time  at  a 
maximum  load  and  constant  speed,  and  are  not  in 
use  for  the  most  part  when  the  weather  is  cold 
enough  to  chill  the  engine.  Marine  engines  are  also 
not  subject  to  constant  shifting  of  speeds  that  makes 
necessary  a  complex  type  of  engine  and  presents  fuel 
ignition  difficulties.  The  consumption  of  fuels  by 
these  types  of  engines  is  only  a  drop  in  the  bucket 
to  that  by  pleasure  cars  and  commercial  trucks. 
Kerosene  carburetors  will  not  have  solved  the  fuel 
problems  until  the  engine  can  be  operated  by  pleasure- 
car  owners  with  as  little  thought  and  care  as  the 
gasoline  car  of  to-day. 

Another  point  that  many  people  overlook,  who 
advocate  the  use  of  kerosene  for  permanent  relief, 
is  that  gasoline  and  kerosene  are  both  derived  from 
the  same  source,  petroleum,  and  the  supply  of  the 
latter  is  diminishing. 


188  G  A  S  O  L  I  X  E 


A  feature  that  detracts  from  kerosene  is  its  odor. 
The  car  in  which  it  is  used  smells  of  kerosene,  and 
this  unpleasant  smell  cannot  be  extracted.  Another 
objection  is  that  when  it  spills  it  does  not  dry  up, 
but  remains  to  collect  dirt  and  make  a  disagreeable 
muss. 

Kerosene  leaves  a  carbon  sediment  in  the  present 
type  of  automobile  motor  and  emits  an  odor  which, 
with  the  great  numbers  of  cars  in  use,  would  be 
offensive.  More  power  can  be  obtained  from  burn- 
ing kerosene  than  from  gasoline,  and  more  from 
crude  oil  than  from  kerosene.  The  heavier  portions 
of  the  crude  oil  are  the  richest  in  heat  units.  But 
gasoline  is  the  only  portion  of  the  crude  oil  that  meets 
the  many  and  diversified  demands  of  automobile 
engines  for  pleasure  cars  as  it  is  conducted  to-day. 
Many  are  working  on  the  problem,  however,  and 
when  a  large  number  of  men  work  on  a  problem 
because  of  its  great  economic  importance,  a  solution 
is  eventually  found. 

BENZOL  AS  A  POSSIBLE  COMPETITOR 
OF  GASOLINE 

A  great  difficulty  that  stands  in  the  way  of  benzol 
becoming  a  serious  competitor  of  gasoline  is  the 
shortage  of  benzol  itself.     This  material  is  obtained 


GASOLINE  189 


from  gases  given  off  when  coal  is  heated  in  retorts 
to  make  coke  and  illuminating  gas.  The  mixed  gases 
containing  from  one  to  one  and  five-tenths  per  cent 
of  benzol  are  brought  in  contact  with  a  heavy  oil 
(a  petroleum  distillate  of  about  35°  Be.).  This  oil 
absorbs  the  benzol  from  the  gas.  Next  the  oil  with 
its  benzol  is  distilled  by  means  of  steam  and  the 
benzol  separated.  The  debenzolized  oil  is  then 
brought  in  contact  with  more  gas;  some  more  benzol 
is  absorbed  and  again  distilled.  In  other  words,  the 
process  is  continuous,  the  oil  being  used  over  and 
over  again. 

At  the  present  time  about  thirty-five  million 
gallons  of  benzol  are  produced  annually,  the  most  of 
which  is  converted  into  high  explosives  for  use  in 
the  European  war.  This  means  that  at  the  close  of 
the  war  a  large  amount  of  benzol  will  be  available 
for  other  uses.  The  utmost  possible  production  of 
benzol  will  probably  not  exceed  sixty  million  gallons. 
Compared  to  the  more  than  1,500,000,000  gallons  of 
gasoline  used,  this  is  not  a  very  large  amount. 

The  natural  odor  of  benzol  is  not  unpleasant,  but 
that  of  its  products  of  combustion  (exhaust  gases)  is 
vile,  due  principally  to  sulphur  content.  Its  specific 
gravity,  .880,  is  too  great  for  most  carburetors, 
though  extra  weighing  of  the  float  would  correct  it. 


190  GASOLINE 


Its  mileage  per  gallon  is  about  eighteen  per  cent 
above  gasoline,  when  measured  by  volume,  but 
about  the  same  when  measured  by  weight.  Its 
rather  high  flash  point  and  initial  boiling  point 
cause  it  to  be  rather  difficult  in  starting  in  cold 
weather.  It  solidifies  at  a  temperature  above  that 
at  which  water  freezes.  Its  one  great  feature  of 
merit  is  its  "pull"  at  slow  speed  under  full  load. 
With  it,  gear  changing  is  reduced  to  a  minimum 
and  knocking  is  almost  absent.  The  engine  can  be 
operated  with  advanced  spark  almost  to  a  standstill. 
A  small  addition  of  benzol  to  gasoline  is  very 
helpful,  particularly  when  heavy-gravity  gasoline  is 
used,  as  it  greatly  lessens  any  knocking  tendency 
and  works  more  smoothly  under  throttle.  A  mix- 
ture of  gasoline  and  benzol,  with  twenty-five  per 
cent  of  the  latter,  makes  an  excellent  fuel,  the  ob- 
jections when  used  in  this  way  disappearing. 


USE  OF  ALCOHOL 

The  price  of  ninety-five  per  cent  alcohol  for 
industrial  purposes  during  normal  times  is  around 
thirty  to  thirty-five  cents  per  gallon.  This  alcohol 
has  only  about  sixty  per  cent  of  the  calorific  power  of 
gasoline,  and  has  not  been  employed  for  motor  fuel 


GASOLINE  191 


in  England  in  normal  times  when  gasoline  sold  for 
forty- two  cents  per  gallon. 

Carburetors  to  handle  kerosene,  alcohol  and 
benzol  need  extensive  redesigning  from  those  that 
work  with  gasoline.  In  the  case  of  alcohol,  if  en- 
gines were  designed  to  use  this  material,  they  would 
develop  more  power.  In  the  existing  type  of  gaso- 
line engine  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  increases  from 
ten  pounds  per  square  inch  (slightly  below  atmos- 
phere) to  seventy  or  eighty  pounds.  If  such  an 
engine  is  operated  on  alcohol,  the  power  developed 
will  be  about  ten  per  cent  less.  If  the  compression 
is  increased  to  about  one  hundred  and  ninety -five 
pounds,  however,  more  power  will  be  developed; 
such  an  engine  cannot  run  on  gasoline,  because 
gasoline  at  these  high  pressures  ignites  spontaneously 
from  the  heat  of  compression. 

Alcohol  can  be  used  successfully  in  any  engine 
adapted  to  the  use  of  gasoline.  It  is  usually,  how- 
ever, just  as  difficult  to  start  an  engine  with  alcohol 
as  with  kerosene,  so  that  usually  it  is  desirable  to 
start  the  engine  with  gasoline  to  heat  it  up  and  then, 
after  a  few  minutes,  shut  off  the  gasoline  supply  and 
open  the  connection  to  the  alcohol  tank  when  the 
engine  will  continue  to  operate  satisfactorily. 

In  regard  to  general  cleanliness,  such  as  absence 


192  GASOLINE 


of  smoke  and  disagreeable  odors,  alcohol  has  many 
advantages  over  gasoline  or  kerosene  as  fuel.  The 
exhaust  from  an  alcohol  engine  is  never  clouded  with 
a  black  or  grayish  smoke,  as  is  the  exhaust  of  a  gaso- 
line or  kerosene  engine  when  the  combustion  of  the 
fuel  is  incomplete,  and  it  is  seldom,  if  ever,  clouded 
with  a  bluish  smoke  when  a  cylinder  oil  of  too  low 
test  is  used  or  an  excessive  amount  supplied,  as  is 
often  the  case  with  a  gasoline  engine. 

The  hazard  involved  in  the  use  of  alcohol,  benzol 
and  kerosene,  as  regards  fires  and  explosions,  is  very 
much  less  than  in  the  use  of  gasoline. 

R.  M.  Strong*  concluded,  as  the  result  of  extensive 
tests  by  him,  that  where  the  restrictions  placed  on  the 
use  of  denatured  alcohol  are  less  than  those  placed 
on  the  use  of  gasoline,  or  where  safety  and  cleanliness 
are  important  requisites,  the  advantages  to  be  gained 
by  the  use  of  alcohol  engines  in  place  of  gasoline 
engines  may  be  such  as  to  overbalance  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  fuel  expense,  especially  if  the  cost  of 
fuel  is  but  a  small  portion  of  the  total  expense  in- 
volved, as  is  often  the  case. 

He  adds  that  denatured  alcohol  will  probably  not 

^"Commercial  Deductions  from  Comparisons  of  Gasoline 
and  Alcohol  Tests  on  Internal  Combustion  Engines."  Bulletin 
32,  Bureau  of  Mines. 


GASOLINE 


193 


be  used  for  power  purposes  to  any  great  extent  until 
its  price  and  the  price  of  gasoline  become  equal,  and 
the  equality  of  gasoline  and  alcohol  engines  in  re- 
spect to  adaptability  and  quantity  of  fuel  consumed 
per  brake  horsepower,  which  has  been  demonstrated 
to  be  possible,  becomes  more  generally  realized. 

Mr.  Strong  states  that  a  fair  representation  of  the 
best  economy  values  obtained,  and  the  corresponding 
efficiencies  for  ten  to  fifteen  horsepower  stationary 
Nash  and  Otto  engines,  are  given  in  the  following  table : 

Results  from  Tests  Made  on  10  to  15  Horse- 
power Nash  and  Otto  Stationary  Engines 


Fuel 

Comp'sion 

Pressure 

Pounds* 

Fuel  Cons'd  per  Brake 
Horsepower  per  Hour 

Thermal 
Efficiency 

PER  CENT  j 

Pound 

Gallon 

Gasoline 
Alcohol 

70 
90 

70 
180 
200 

0.60 

.58 

.96 
.71 
.68 

0.100 

.097 

.140 
.104 
.099 

26 

28 

28 
39 
40 

*Per  square  inch  above  atmosphere. 

fBased  on  the  indicated  horsepower  and  the  lower  heatin; 
value  of  the  fuel. 


194  GASOLINE 


SOURCES  OF  ALCOHOL 

Prime  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  alcohol 
(ethyl)  are  saccharine  or  starchy  substances.  These 
include  corn,  potatoes,  cereals  and  rice.  The 
following  table  gives  the  theoretical  amount  of 
alcohol  extracted  per  100  kilos.  (One  kilo  =  2,2046 
lbs.)  of  various  materials. 

Alcohol 

Wheat  32  —  44  Kilos 

Maize  31  —  33      " 

Barley  30  —  32      " 

Rye  30  —  45      " 

Rice  39  —  43      " 

Green  Potatoes  10  —  12       " 

Dry  Potatoes  34  —  35      " 

If  every  American  farm  (6,000,000)  could  each 
produce  500  gallons  of  alcohol  a  year,  we  would  have 
an  annual  supply  of  3,000,000,000  gallons,  or  about 
one  and  one-half  the  estimated  yearly  consumption 
of  gasoline  at  present. 

It  is  entirely  possible  to  make  twenty-five  cents  a 
gallon  alcohol  from  fifteen  cents  a  bushel  potatoes, 
but  no  farmer  would  dig  potatoes  for  that  price. 
It  is  true  that  Germany  converts  a  vast  tonnage  of 
potatoes  into  alcohol,  but  she  does  it  by  efficient 


GASOLINE  195 


intensive  methods,  whereby  every  by-product  is 
utilized,  and  by  the  aid  of  an  autocrat  government. 
Prices  and  output  are  controlled  by  an  association. 
As  far  back  as  1901,  Germany  produced  112,000,000 
gallons  of  denatured  alcohol.  There  are  6,000 
potato  stills  in  Germany.  The  investments  per 
still  range  from  $2,000  to  $5,000. 

Denatured  alcohol  is  now  selling  for  fifty  cents  a 
gallon  (a  war  price),  but  it  is  not  being  made  from 
potatoes.  It  is  being  made  from  the  grains,  corn, 
rye  and  barley. 

Molasses  looms  up  as  a  profitable  source  of 
alcohol.  By  a  new  distilling  process  it  is  possible 
to  convert  forty  per  cent  of  a  gallon  of  molasses  into 
alcohol.  This  can  be  done  in  Cuba  at  ten  cents  a 
gallon.  The  total  cost  to  the  producer  in  the  United 
States  would  not  exceed  eighteen  cents.  The  lowest 
manufacturing  cost  of  making  alcohol  from  corn  is 
three  and  one-half  cents  a  wine  gallon.  To  this 
must  be  added  the  cost  of  the  corn.  A  fifty-six- 
pound  bushel  of  corn  averages  two  and  one-half 
gallons  of  alcohol.  A  bushel  of  potatoes  will  yield 
about  six-tenths  of  a  gallon  of  alcohol.  Hence,  the 
raw-product  cost  of  potatoes  and  corn  is  all  out  of 
proportion   to   the    raw-product    cost    of   molasses. 


196  GASOLINE 


In  1914,  the  United  States  imported  53,000,000 
gallons  of  molasses  for  alcohol  and  cattle  feeds. 

In  the  United  States  this  year  the  production  of 
denatured  alcohol  will  be  about  35,000,000  gallons, 
small  as  compared  to  the  gasoline  consumption. 
But  there  are  large  possibilities.  The  molasses  by- 
product of  cane  sugar  will  produce  forty  gallons  of 
alcohol  to  the  ton  of  cane  used.  The  world's  cane 
sugar  production  is  about  4,000,000  tons  and  will 
run  to  5,000,000  tons.  There  is  an  available  supply 
of  200,000,000  gallons  of  denatured  alcohol  from  that 
source. 

There  are  still  better  possibilities  in  the  produc- 
tion of  alcohol  from  wood  waste  in  the  United  States. 
Our  Southern  states  waste  raw  material  sufficient 
for  the  concurrent  daily  production  of  600,000 
gallons  of  methyl  alcohol  (among  other  things),  or 
about  219,000,000  gallons  a  year.  This  alcohol 
would  cost  about  twenty  cents  per  gallon  to  produce. 

There  is  thus  available  about  400,000,000  gallons 
of  gasoline  a  year  from  molasses  and  wood  waste 
before  we  get  down  to  the  business  of  growing  special 
crops  for  alcohol. 

MIXTURES  OF  BENZOL  AND  ALCOHOL 

The   engineering   department   of    the   Imperial 


GASOLINE  197 


German  Transportation  Department  has  tabula  led 
a  series  of  experiments  with  various  mixtures  of 
gasoline,  kerosene  and  benzol.  A  Mercedes  touring- 
car  of  the  1914  type  was  used,  the  carburetor  of 
which  was  set  for  gasoline  and  not  adjusted  in  any 
way  during  the  series  of  tests.  The  gasoline  cost 
38  cents  per  gallon,  the  benzol  37.5  cents  and  the 
alcohol  34  cents.  The  highest  speed  obtained  and 
the  distance  covered  on  1  litre  (1.057  quarts)  of  fuel 
are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Comparison  of  Gasoline,  Benzol  and  Alcohol 

Speed  At'n'd    Distance 
Fuel  Used  Kj 

part  benzol,  1  part  alcohol, 

"        3     " 
«        4     « 

"       5     " 
Pure  benzol, 
Pure  gasoline, 

According  to  the  foregoing  table  the  car  traveled 
62  km.  for  $1.00,  if  gasoline  were  used;  76  km.,  when 

*One  Kilometer  =  .6214  miles. 

fDistance  traveled  on  pure  gasoline  is  twenty-five  per  cent 
less  than  on  the  best  benzol-alcohol  mixture.      1:1. 


.  Pr.* 

Trav'd  on 

1  Litre. 

68 

7.5 

66 

7.2 

63 

7.0 

62 

6.6 

58 

6.0 

67 

7.1 

70 

5.8f 

198  GASOLINE 


pure  benzol  was  used,  and  84  kin.  when  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  benzol  and  alcohol  was  used. 

German  motorists  use  mixtures  of  benzol  and 
alcohol  very  much  in  their  machines  for  war  pur- 
poses. To  overcome  the  difficulty  of  prompt 
starting,  an  auxiliary  tank  is  used  filled  with  ether 
or  gasoline.  When  starting  the  motor  this  auxiliary 
fuel  is  used,  and  when  the  motor  has  turned  over  a 
few  hundred  times  the  benzol-alcohol  tank  is  con- 
nected to  the  carburetor  by  simply  turning  the 
proper  cocks. 

This  auxiliary  tank  has  served  another  valuable 
purpose  in  war  maneuvers,  in  that  if  the  main  tank 
is  pierced  by  a  bullet,  the  auxiliary  tank  can  carry 
the  motor  car  ten  to  fifteen  miles  to  safety. 

Taking  everything  into  consideration,  alcohol  at 
present  looms  up  as  the  most  feasible  substitute  for 
gasoline  when  the  supply  of  crude  oil  becomes 
limited. 

NAPHTHALENE  AS  MOTOR  FUEL 

Naphthalene,  a  product  from  coal  distillation, 
has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  internal  combustion 
engines.  It  is  derived  from  coal  to  the  extent  of 
0.3  per  cent  of  the  coal  carbonized. 

Pure  naphthalene  is  a  white  solid,  melts  at  175° 


GASOLINE  199 


F.,  and  boils  at  424°  F.  In  the  molten  condition  it  is 
a  clear,  colorless  liquid. 

The  gross  calorific  power  of  naphthalene  is 
17,280  B.T.U.  per  pound,  as  compared  to  alcohol 
11,600,  and  gasoline  about  20,400. 

In  using  naphthalene  as  a  motor  fuel  in  internal 
combustion  engines  it  has  been  dissolved  in  various 
fluids.  It  is  not  soluble  in  water,  but  is  soluble  to 
the  extent  of  ten  per  cent  in  alcohol  at  50°  F., 
petroleum  ether  eleven  per  cent,  and  toluol  thirty- 
five  per  cent. 

The  flash  point  of  naphthalene  in  the  Pensky- 
Martens  apparatus  is  176°  F.,  the  fire  point  is  210°  F. 
It  has  the  peculiar  property  that,  on  cooling  below 
the  melting  point,  it  does  not  pass  through  the 
liquid  state,  but  immediately  forms  solid  flakes.  It 
yields  a  vapor  of  uniform  composition.  A  naphtha- 
lene engine  must  have  a  vessel  for  melting  the 
naphthalene  kept  hot  enough  to  prevent  solidifica- 
tion. In  Germany  there  were  about  four  hundred 
naphthalene  engines  in  1914. 

Engines  cannot  start  cold  on  naphthalene,  and 
are  designed  to  start  with  gas  or  liquid  fuel.  Engines 
designed  and  run  with  naphthalene  show  better 
efficiencies  than  those  designed  and  run  with  gasoline. 
The  economy  of  the  engine  and  the  small  fire  risks 


200  GASOLINE 


in  the  storage  of  naphthalene  have  led  to  trials  of 
these  engines  for  automobiles.  Most  of  the  at- 
tempts have  been  made  with  the  naphthalene  dis- 
solved in  benzol.  The  solution  must  be  well  below 
the  saturation  point,  or  solid  naphthalene  separates 
out  on  cooling. 

The  use  of  naphthalene  for  small  engines  has 
certain  advantages,  so  that  its  field  of  usefulness  will 
undoubtedly  be  extended  in  this  respect. 

FAKE  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  GASOLINE 

The  public  press  has  devoted  considerable  space 
to  many  different  cheap  compounds  that  are  ex- 
ploited, or  about  to  be  exploited,  to  take  the  place 
of  gasoline.  New  processes  for  making  gasoline  and 
new  substances  have  been  exploited  as  selling  for  a 
cent  up  to  a  few  cents  a  gallon.  The  best  proof 
that  none  of  these  claims  have  materialized  lies  in 
the  fact  that  not  one  of  the  substitutes  so  widely 
heralded  in  the  past  is  in  use  at  the  present  time. 

Scientists  who  have  specialized  in  the  study  of 
petroleum  in  all  of  its  phases  take  little  stock  in  the 
many  fanciful  yarns  that  have  appeared  regarding 
gasoline  substitutes.  Many  of  these  trained  men 
have  been  working  indefatigably  on  the  problem, 
sparing  neither  time  nor  money,  and  have  not  yet 


GASOLINE  201 


developed  a  substance  to  take  the  place  of  gasoline. 
That  persons  of  no  special  training,  and  without  the 
facilities  for  experimentation  offered  by  a  well- 
equipped  laboratory,  should  invent  a  substance  en- 
tirely new  to  the  chemical  world,  or  even  a  new 
compound  of  substances  already  known  to  the 
world,  seems  improbable. 

Much  discussed  among  the  new  substitutes  for 
gasoline  is  one  devised  by  a  man  living  in  Farmingdale, 
Long  Island,  who  claims  that  he  has  worked  for  three 
years  in  a  modest  laboratory  at  his  home  to  produce 
a  transparent  green  liquid,  a  few  drops  of  which  will 
run  an  automobile  as  swiftly  as  any  gasoline  on  the 
market.  It  is  claimed  that  the  precious  green  sub- 
stance is  a  catalytic  agent  which  enables  him  to  set 
free  the  hydrogen  of  the  water.  If  a  substance  has 
been  discovered  of  such  tremendous  energy  that  a 
few  drops  will  decompose  water  and  liberate  its 
hydrogen,  the  inventor  has  accomplished  something 
brand  new,  and  contributed  mightily  to  science  and 
industry.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the 
story  sounds  highly  improbable. 

Down  in  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  two  men  have  in- 
vented chemical  compounds,  which  when  mixed  with 
kerosene,  they  claim,  will  afford  a  substitute  for 
gasoline  at  one-third  to  one-half  its  present  cost. 


202  GASOLINE 


Another  man,  aged  seventy-three,  has  worked 
twelve  years  on  a  compound  he  calls  "Motorzene," 
and  mixes  it  in  certain  proportions  with  kerosene, 
making  a  fuel  costing  around  nine  cents  a  gallon, 
he  says. 

Another  St.  Louisan  blends  three  chemicals  so 
skillfully  they  cannot  be  detected  when  blended,  and 
also  mixes  the  blend  with  kerosene.  He  claims  to  do 
away  with  the  difficulty  in  starting  and  the  bad  odor 
that  generally  results  when  kerosene  is  used. 

A  Cleveland  policeman  claims  he  mixes  a  fluid, 
now  plentiful  and  selling  at  six  cents  a  gallon,  with 
gasoline  in  certain  proportions,  and  secures  a  mix- 
ture slightly  more  than  six  hundred  per  cent  more 
efficient  than  gasoline  alone.  A  gallon  of  this  mix- 
ture costs  fifteen  cents. 

A  preacher  of  the  gospel  makes  the  world  bow 
in  homage  to  Wilkinsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  by  pro- 
ducing in  that  city  a  gasoline  substitute  that  can  be 
sold  for  six  cents  a  gallon. 

An  amateur  scientist  of  Kansas  City,  after  work- 
ing five  years,  has  produced  a  method  whereby  he 
expects  to  secure  as  much  as  seven  gallons  of  gasoline 
from  six  gallons  of  crude  oil.  He  states  that  his 
process  is  an  electro-chemical  one. 

Over  a  year  ago  the  town  of  McKeesport,  Perm- 


GASOLINE  203 


sylvania,  leaped  into  the  limelight.  A  man  in  that 
city  gave  "Zoline"  to  the  world.  "Zoline"  was 
prepared  by  mixing  substances,  cheaply  and  easily 
secured  at  any  drug  store,  with  water.  "Zoline" 
must  have  been  a  highly  inflammable  substance 
indeed  for,  after  the  first  vivid  flare  of  publicity,  its 
light  was  forever  extinguished. 

FUNDAMENTAL  PHYSICAL  LAWS 
AND  DEFINITIONS 

Boiling  Point:  The  temperature  at  which  a 
liquid  gives  off  bubbles  of  gas  or  vapor  is  called  its 
boiling  point.  Upon  heating  a  pure  substance  its 
temperature  rises  until  the  boiling  or  ebullition  point 
is  reached,  when  the  temperature  will  remain  constant 
until  all  of  the  substance  passes  from  the  liquid  into 
the  vapor  form.  An  impure  substance,  or  mixture 
of  substances  like  petroleum  or  gasoline,  has  no 
definite  boiling  point,  but  is  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  compounds  of  widely-differing  boiling  points. 
Upon  heating  it  the  temperature  gradually  rises  until 
all  of  the  gasoline  passes  into  the  vapor  form  or,  in 
the  case  of  petroleum,  the  original  mixture  has  been 
divided  into  two  parts :  one  a  part  that  has  passed 
into  the  vapor  form  and  the  other  a  coke  residue 
that  stays  behind  in  the  vessel  that  was  heated. 


204 GASOLINE 

Vapor  Tension  or  Vapor  Pressure:  All  liquids 
tend  to  assume  the  gaseous  state,  and  the  pressure  ex- 
erted by  the  liquid  in  passing  into  this  gaseous  state  is 
called  the  vapor  pressure  of  the  liquid.  This  pres- 
sure is  higher,  the  higher  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid. 

Saturation:  A  gas  is  saturated  when  its  full 
capacity  of  a  given  volume  of  vapor  has  been  reached. 
For  instance,  air  will  hold  a  certain  volume  of  a 
certain  kind  of  gasoline  at  a  certain  temperature, 
and  no  more.  The  air  is  then  said  to  be  saturated 
with  respect  to  the  gasoline.  Air  that  holds  only 
one-half  the  gasoline  vapor  that  it  could  hold  is 
said  to  be  fifty  per  cent  saturated. 

Boyle's  Law:  In  a  perfect  gas  the  volume  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  pressure  to  which 
the  gas  is  subjected,  i.e.,  if  one  cubic  foot  of  gas, 
having  a  pressure  of  fifteen  pounds  per  square  inch, 
is  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  thirty  pounds  per  square 
inch,  its  volume  will  become  one-half  cubic  foot. 

Law  of  Charles:  Gases  expand  1/491  of  their  vol- 
ume at  "0"  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  each  degree 
Fahrenheit  that  they  rise  in  temperature. 

Temperature:  Temperature  is  a  measure  of  the 
hotness  of  a  body.  It  is  usually  expressed  in  Fahren- 
heit or  centigrade  degrees.     In  the  Fahrenheit  scale 


GASOLINE  205 


the  freezing-  point  of  water  is  called  thirty-two  and 
the  boiling  point  two  hundred  twelve  degrees,  and 
the  interval  between  these  points  equally  divided 
to  express  other  degrees  of  hotness. 

In  the  case  of  the  centigrade  thermometer,  the 
freezing  point  of  water  is  called  "0"  and  the  boiling- 
point  one  hundred  degrees. 

Specific  Gravity:  The  specific  gravity  of  a  sub- 
stance is  the  ratio  of  its  weight  to  the  weight  of 
another  substance  of  equal  volume  taken  as  a 
standard.  In  the  case  of  gases,  air  is  usually  taken 
as  the  standard,  and  in  the  case  of  liquids,  water  is 
chosen. 

Heat  Unit:  The  unit  quantity  of  heat,  or  the 
heat  unit  is  the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  a  unit  weight  of  water  one  degree. 

The  heat  required  to  raise  one  gram  of  w^ater 
one  degree  centigrade  is  called  a  gram  calorie. 

The  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water 
one  degree  Fahrenheit  is  called  a  British  Thermal 
Unit,  or  B.t.u. 

Fractional  Distillation:  This  is  the  separating 
of  different  constituents  from  a  common  substance. 
It  is  made  possible  by  the  fact  that  different  sub- 
stances pass  into  the  vapor  state  at  different  tem- 
peratures. 


206  GASOLINE 


Explosive  Mixtures:  Any  combustible  gas  will 
combine  directly  with  air  (oxygen),  and  when  the 
mixture  contains  the  gases  in  right  proportion  an 
explosion  will  occur  upon  ignition  of  the  mixture. 

Destructive  Distillation:  Destructive  distilla- 
tion is  the  process  of  heating  a  substance  beyond 
the  point  of  decomposition  without  the  access  of 
air. 

Oxidation:  Oxidation  is  the  act  or  process  of 
taking  up  oxygen  or  combining  with  oxygen. 

Composition  of  air:  Pure  dry  air  contains  79.14 
per  cent  of  nitrogen,  20.93  per  cent  oxygen  and  .03 
per  cent  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Combustion:  Combustion  is  a  vigorous  chemical 
combination  attended  by  the  evolution  of  heat  and 
light.  When  one  speaks  of  the  combustion  of  gaso- 
line, there  is  meant  the  burning  or  chemical  combi- 
nation of  the  gasoline  (carbon  and  hydrogen)  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air. 


GASOLINE 


207 


USEFUL  TABLES 
Relative  Value  of  Petroleum  and  Coal 


Coal  B.T.U. 

1  Lb.  Coal     1  Barrel  Oil  1  Ton  Coai 

Per  Lb. 

=  Lbs.  Oil     = 

Lbs.  Coal    =  Bbls.  Oil 

10,000 

2 

620                    3 . 23 

12,000 

1.818 

564                     3 .  55 

12,000  . 

1.667 

517                     3.87 

13,000 

1.538 

477                     4.19 

14,000 

1.429 

443                     4 . 52 

15,000 

1 .  333 

413                     4.84 

Ignition  Temperatures  of  Gases 

Ignition  Temp, 

Gas 

Formula 

°F. 

Methane 

CH4 

1250 

Ethane 

C2H6 

1140 

Propane 

C3H8 

1000 

Hydrogen 

H2 

1020  to  1200 

Carbon  Monoxide 

CO 

1100  to  1200 

iVcetylene 

C2H2 

1000 

Gasoline  Vapor 

950 

Comparative    Evaporation    Tests    of    Different 


Fuels 


1  lb.  of  Anthracite  Coal  evaporates 
1  lb.  of  Bituminous  Coal  evaporates 
1  lb.  of  Fuel  Oil  (36°  gravity)  evaporates 


Lbs.    of    Water- 

from  and  at 

212  °F. 

9.70 

10.14 

16.48 


208  GASOLINE 


Explosive  Limits  of  Different  Gases 


Gas 
Gasoline  Vapor 
Ethane 
Methane 
Natural  Gas 
Acetylene 
Coal  Gas 
Hydrogen 
Carbon  Monoxide 


Low  Limit 

High  Limit 

(per  cext) 

(per  cent) 

1.5 

6.0 

2.5 

5.0 

5.  5 

14.5 

5.0 

12.0 

3.0 

73.0 

7.0 

21.0 

10.0 

66.0 

15.0 

73.0 

Comparative  Table  Thermometers 

1  Fahrenheit  degree  =  5-9  degree  Cent. 
1  Centigrade       "       =  9-5  Fahr. 

Temp.  Fahrenheit      =  9-5  X  temp.  C  +  32° 
Temp.  Centigrade      =  5-9  (temp.  F.  —  32°) 
Freezing  point  —  Cent.  =  0  ;  Fahr.    =  32 
Boiling  point  —  Cent.  =  100°;  Fahr.  =  212° 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cext. 

Fahr. 

—18 

0 

107 

226 

456 

455 

—15 

5 

110 

230 

237 

460 

—12 

10 

113 

235 

240 

466 

—  9 

16 

116 

241 

242 

469 

—  7 

19 

118 

244 

245 

475 

—  4 

25 

121 

250 

248 

480 

—  1 

30 

124 

255 

251 

486 

2 

36 

127 

261 

253 

489 

5 

41 

129 

264 

256 

495 

7 

45 

132 

270 

259 

500 

10 

50 

134 

275 

262 

505 

13 

55 

137 

280 

265 

511 

16 

61 

140 

286 

267 

514 

18 

64 

142 

289 

270 

520 

21 

70 

145 

295 

273 

525 

24 

75 

148 

300 

276 

531 

27 

81 

151 

306 

278 

534 

29 

84 

153 

309 

281 

540 

32 

90 

156 

315 

284 

545 

35 

95 

159 

320 

287 

550 

38 

100 

162 

325 

290 

556 

1  Fahrenheit  degree  =  5-9  degree  Cent. 
1  Centigrade  =  9-5  Fahr. 

Temp.  Fahrenheit      =9-5  X  temp.  C  +  32c 
Temp.  Centigrade      =5-9  (temp.  F. — 32) 
Freezing  point  —  Cent.  =  0°;  Fahr.  =  32° 
Boiling  point  —  Cent  =  100°;  Fahr.  =212° 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

41 

106 

165 

331 

292 

5.59 

43 

109 

167 

334 

295 

565 

46 

115 

170 

340 

298 

570 

49 

120 

173 

345 

301 

576 

52 

126 

176 

351 

303 

579 

54 

129 

178 

354 

306 

585 

57 

135 

181 

360 

309 

590 

60 

140 

184 

365 

312 

595 

63 

145 

187 

370 

315 

601 

66 

151 

190 

376 

317 

604 

68 

154 

192 

379 

320 

610 

71 

160 

195 

385 

323 

614 

74 

165 

198 

390 

326 

620 

77 

171 

201 

396 

329 

625 

79 

174 

203 

399 

332 

630 

82 

180 

206 

405 

335 

636 

85 

185 

209 

410 

337 

639 

88 

190 

212 

415 

340 

645 

91 

196 

215 

421 

343 

650 

93 

199 

217 

424 

346 

656 

96 

205 

220 

430 

348 

659 

99 

210 

223 

435 

351 

665 

102 

216 

226 

441 

354 

670 

104 

219 

228 

444 

357 

675 

231 

450 

360 

681 

G 

ASOLINE 

211 

Specific 

:  Gravity  of  Gases 

Specific 

Lbs.  per  Cu.  Ft. 

Gas 

Gravity 

32°  F.  and  760 
mm.  pressure 

Aii- 

1 .  000 

0.08071 

Ammonia 

0.597 

0.04807 

Carbon  Dioxide 

1.529 

0.12323 

Carbon  Monoxide 

0.967 

0.07704 

Chlorine 

2.491 

0.19774 

Coal  Gas      \ 

(  to 

0.340 
0.450 

0.02628 
0.03488 

Hydrogen 

0.0696 

0 . 00563 

Hydrogen  Sulphide 

1.191 

0.09214 

Methane  (Marsh  Gas) 

0.559 

0.04538 

Nitrogen 

0.972 

0.07847 

Nitric  Oxide 

1.039 

0.08384* 

Nitrous  Oxide 

1.527 

0.12298 

Oxygen 

1.053 

0.08927 

Sulphur  Dioxide 

2.247 

0.17386 

Steam  at  100°  C. 

0.469 

0.03627 

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GASOLINE  213 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

Troy  Weight 

24  grains  —  1  pwt.  12  ounces  =  1  pound 

20  pwts.    =  1  ounce 

Used  for  weighing  gold,  silver  and  jewels. 

Apothecaries'  Weight 

20  grains  =  1  scruple  8  drams  =  1  ounce 

3  scruples  =  1  dram  12  ounces  =  1  pound 

The  ounce  and  pound  in  this  are  the  same  as  in  Troy  weight. 

Avoirdupois  Weight 

27  11-32  grains  =  1  dram  4  quarters  =  1  cwt. 

16  drams    =1  ounce  2,000  lbs.     =    1  short  ton 

16  ounces  =1  pound  2,240  lbs.    =  1  long  ton 
24  pounds  =  1  quarter 

Dry  Measure 

2  pints      =  1  quart  4  pecks      =  1  bushel 

8  quarts  =  1  peck  37  bushels  =  1  chaldron 

Liquid  Measure 

4  gills  =  1  pint  31|  gallons  =  1  barrel 

2  pints  =  1  quart  2  barrels  =  1  hogshead 

4  quarts  =  1  gallon 

Long  Measure 

12  inches  =   1  foot  40  rods  =  1  furlong 

3  feet  =  1  yard  8  furlongs  =  1  sta.  mile 

5|  yards  =  1  rod  3  miles  =  1  league 


214  GASOLINE 


Mariners'  Measure 

G  feet  =  1  fathom  5,280  feet  =  1  sta.  mile 

120  fathoms  =  1  cable  length     6,085  feet  =  1  naut.  mile 
7 1  cable  lengths  =  1  mile 

Miscellaneous 

3  inches  =  1  palm  18  inches  =  1  cubit 

4  inches  =  1  hand  21.8  inches  =  1  Bible  cubit 
G  inches  =  1  span  2|  feet  =  1  military  pace 

Square  Measure 

144  sq.  in.  =  1  sq.  ft.  40  square  rods  =  1  rood 

9  sq.  ft.  =  1  sq.  yd.  4  roods  =  1  acre 

30|  sq.  yds.  =  1  sq.  rod  640  acres  =  1  square  mile 

Surveyors'  Measure 

7.92  inches  =  1  link 
25  links  =  1  rod 

4  rods  =  1  chain 
10  square  chains  or  160  square  rods  =  1  acre 
640  acres  =  1  square  mile 
-36  square  miles  (6  miles  square)  =  1  township 

Cubic  Measure 

1,728  cubic  inches  ==  1  cubic  foot 

27  cubic  feet  =  1  cubic  yard 
2,150.42  cubic  inches  =  1  standard  bushel 
277.42  cubic  inches  =  1  English  gallon  (Imperial) 
231  cubic  inches  =  1  American  gallon 

1  cubic  foot  =s  about  four-fifths  of  a  bushel 


GASOLINE  215 


EXPLANATION  OF  METRIC  SYSTEM 

The  metric  system  has  been  authorized  by  act 
of  Congress  in  the  United  States,  and  by  act  of 
Parliament  in  the  United  Kingdom.  As  this  system 
is  in  use  in  so  many  of  the  countries  with  which 
the  United  States  trades  a  full  explanation  is  given. 

It  is  a  decimal  system,  the  meter  being  the  basis 
of  all  measures,  whether  of  length,  surface,  capacity, 
volume  or  weight.  The  meter  measures  39.37 
inches,  and  is  theoretically  one  ten-millionth  of  the 
distance  from  the  equator  to  the  pole.  Multiples  of 
the  units  are  expressed  by  the  Greek  prefixes  "deca," 
"hecto"  and  "kilo,"  indicating  respectively  tens, 
hundreds  and  thousands.  Decimal  parts  of  the 
unit  are  indicated  by  the  Latin  prefixes  "deci,' 
"centi"  and  "mill,"  meaning  respectively  tenth 
hundredth  and  thousandth. 


Measures  of  Length 

The  unit  of  length  is  the  meter  which,  like  the 
English  yard,  is  used  in  measuring  cloth,  lace  and 
moderate  lengths.  For  long  distances,  like  the 
mile,  the  kilometer  is  commonly  used;  Lbut  for  short 
or  minute  distances,  the  centimeter  and  millimeter 
are  used. 


216  G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


10  millimeters  (mm.)  =  1  centimeter 
10  centimeters  (cm.  )  =1  decimeter 
10  decimeters    (dm.  )  =  1  meter 
1,000  meters  (m.)  =  1  kilometer  (km.) 

Measures  of  Surface 

Measures  of  surface  are  derived  from  measures 
of  length,  and  the  unit  is  the  square  meter,  which 
is  used  like  the  square  yard  in  measuring  small 
areas,  like  ceilings  and  floors.  The  are  and  hectare 
are  used  in  land  measure.  As  a  surface  area  is  the 
product  of  its  length  and  width,  a  square  centimeter 
would  equal  one  hundred  square  millimeters. 

100  square  millimeters  =  1  square  centimeter 

100  square  centimeters  =  1  square  decimeter 

100  square  decimeters  =  1  square  meter  or  centare 

100  centares  =  1  are 

100  ares  =  1  hectare 

100  hectares  =  1  square  kilometer 

Cubic  Measure 

Cubic  measure  is  constructed  in  the  same  way, 
remembering  that  a  cube  is  the  product  of  the  length, 
width  and  height;  a  cubic  centimeter  would  be  a 
cube  measuring  ten  millimeters  each  way  and  would 
contain    1,000   cubic   millimeters. 


GASOLINE  217 


The  unit  is  the  cubic  meter,  or  stere,  which, 
like  the  cubie  yard,  is  used  in  measuring  embank- 
ments, excavations,  etc.;  cubic  centimeters  and 
millimeters  are  used  for  minute  bodies. 

1000  cubic  millimeters    =1  cubic  centimeter 
1000  cubic  centimeters    =  1  cubic  decimeter 
1000  cubic  decimeters     =  1  cubic  meter  or  stere 
1000  cubic  meters  =1  cubic  decameter 

1000  cubic  decameters    =1  cubic  hectometer 
1000  cubic  hectometers  =  1  cubic  kilometer 

Measures  of  Capacity 

Measures  of  capacity  are  based  on  the  cubic 
meter,  but  as  the  cubic  meter  would  be  too  large 
and  unwieldy  for  ordinary  purposes,  the  cubic 
decimeter  was  adopted  as  the  unit  and  the  name 
liter  given  to  it.  The  liter  is  equal  to  1.0567  quarts, 
and  is  used  like  the  quart  or  gallon,  multiples  form- 
ing the  larger,  and  decimal  parts  the  smaller,  denomi- 
nations. 

10  milliliters    =  1  centiliter 
10  centiliters  =  1  deciliter 
10  deciliters     —  1  liter 
10  liters  =  1  decaliter 

10  decaliters   =  1  hectoliter 
10  hectoliters  =  1  kiloliter 


218  GASOLINE 


The  hectoliter  (2.8377  bushels  =  26.417   gallons) 
is  used  like  the  bushel  or  barrel. 


Metric  Weights 

The  unit  of  weight  is  the  gram  (15.432  grains), 
and  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  water  at 
its  greatest  density — about  39°  F. 

Milligram    (1/1000  gram)  =  0.0154  grain 

Centigram  (1/100  gram)  =  0.1543  grain 

Decigram    (1/10  gram)  =  1.5432  grains 

Gram    .        (1)  =  15.432  grains 

Decagram   (10  grams)  =  0.3527  ounce 

Hectogram  (100  grams)  =  3.5274  ounces 

Kilogram     (1000  grams)  =  2.2046  pounds 

Myriagram  (10,000  grams)  =  22.046  pounds 

Quintal       (100,000  grams)  -220.46  pounds 


Metric  Dry  Measure 

Milliliter   (1/1000  liter)   =  0.061     cubic  inch 

Centiliter  (1/100  liter)    =  0.6102  cubic  inch 

Deciliter    (1/10  liter)    =  6.1022  cubic  inches 

Liter  (l)       =  0.908     quart 

Decaliter  (10  liters)  =  9.08      quarts 

Hectoliter  (100  liters)  =  2.838    bushels 

Kiloliter    (1000  liters)  =  1.308     cubic  yards 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


219 


Metric  Liquid  Measure 


Milliliter    (1/1000  liter)    =  0.0338  fluid  ounce 

Centiliter  (1/100 

liter)    =  0.338    fluid  ounce 

Deciliter    (1/10 

liter)    =  0.845    gill 

Liter           (l) 

=  1.0567  quarts 

Decaliter    (10 

liters)  =  2.6418  gallons 

Hectoliter  (100 

liters)  =  26.417  gallons 

Kiloliter     (1000 

liters)  =  264.18  gallons 

Metric  Measures  of  Length 

Millimeter     (1/1000  meter)   =        0.0394  inch 

Centimeter   (1/10C 

1     meter)    =       0.3937  inch 

Decimeter     (1/10 

meter)    =       3.937    inches 

Meter 

=     39.37      inches 

Decameter    (10 

meters)  =  393.7         inches 

Hectometer  (100 

meters)  =  328.           feet,  1  inch 

Kilometer     (1000 

meters)  =       0.62137  mile  (3.280ft.  10 in.) 

Mvriaineter  (10,000  meters)  =       6.2137  miles 

Metric  Surface  Measure 

Centare   (1       square  meter)   =  1,550  square  inches 
Are  (100  square  meters)   =  119.6  square  yards 

Hectare  (10,100  square  meters)  =  2.471  acres 

Metric  and  American  Conversion  Table 

Millimeters  X  .03937  =  inches 

Centimeters  X  .3937     =  inches 

Meters  =  39.37  inches 

Meters  X    3.281  =  feet 

Meters  per  second  =  196.86  feet  per  minute 


Kilometers  X  .62: 


tiles 


220 


GASOLINE 


Kilometers  X  3280.89  =  feet. 

Square  millimeters    X  .0015.1  =  square  inches 

Square  centimeters  X  .155  square  inches 

Cubic  centimeters    -4-  16.383  =  cubic  inches 
X  35.3165  =  cubic  feet 
X  264.2  =  gallons  (231  cubic  inches) 
X  .2642  =  gallons  (231  cubic  inches) 
X  2.2046  =  pounds 
square     millimeter  X  1422.3 


Cubic  meters 
Cubic  meters 
Liters 
Kilograms 
Kilograms    per 

square  inch 
Kilograms    per 

square  inch 
Kilowatts 
Watts 

Cheval  vapeur 
Centigrade 


square    centimeter  X  14. 


=  pounds 
=  pounds 


per 


per 


X  1.34  =  horsepower 

-f-  746  =  horsepower 

X  .9863  =  horsepower 

X  1.8  +  32  degrees  =  Fahrenheit 

MISCELLANEOUS 


1  U.  S.  gallon  of  water  at  62°  weighs  8.3356  lbs.  and  contains 

231  inches. 
7.4805  U.  S.  gallons  =  1  cubic  foot.     A  cylinder,  7  inches  by 

6  inches  is  one  gallon  nearly,  or  230.9  cubic  inches. 
I  Imperial  gallon  of  water  at  62°  weighs  10  lbs. 
1  Imperial  gallon     contains  277.274  cubic  inches  or  1.20032 

U.  S.  gallon. 
Capacity  of  a  cylinder   (tank)   in  U.   S.  gallons  =  square  of 

diameter  in  inches  X  height   in   inches  X  .0034. 
Capacity  of  cylinder  in  U.  S.  bushels  =  square  of  diameter  in 

inches  X  height  in  inches  X  .0003652. 
A  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  1\  gallons,  1728  cubic  inches 

and  weighs  62^  lbs. 


GASOLINE  221 


MENSURATION 

Circumference  of  circle  =  diameter  X  3.141(1. 

Circumference  of  circle  =  radius  X  G.2832. 

Area  of  circle  =  radius2  X  3.1416. 

Area  of  circle  =  diameter2' X  .7854. 

Area  of  circle  =  circumference2' X  .07958. 

Area  of  circle  =  ^  circumference  X  §  diameter. 

Radius*  of  circle  =  circumference  X  .159155. 

Diameter  of  circle  =  circumference  X  .31831. 

Side  of  inscribed  square  =  diameter  of  circle  X  .7071. 

Side  of  inscribed  square  =  circumference  of  circle  X  .225. 

Side  of  equal ; square  =  circumference  of  circle  X  .8861. 

Volume  of  sphere  =  surface  X  1-6  diameter. 

Surface*  of  sphere  =  circumference  X  diameter. 

Surface  of  sphere  =  diameter2  X  3.1416. 

Surface  of  sphere  =  circumference2  X  .3183. 

Volume  of  sphere  =  diameter3  X  .5236. 

Volume  of  sphere  =  radius3  X  4.1888. 

Volume  of  sphere  =  circumference3  X  .016887. 

Side  of  inscribed  cube  =  radius  of  sphere  X  1.1547. 

Surface  of  cube  =  area  of  one  side  by  6. 

Area  of  ellipse  =  both  diameters  X  .7854. 

Area  of  triangle  =  base  by  ^  altitude. 

Volume  of  cone  or  pyramid  =  area  of  base  by  1-3  altitude. 

Area  of  parallelogram  =  base  by  altitude  . 

Area  of  trapezoid  =  altitude  X  \  sum  of  parallel   sides. 

Area  of  trapezium  =  area   of   2   constituent   triangles. 

Area  of  regular  polygon  =  sum   of   its   sides  X  perpendicular 

from  its  center  to  one  of  its  sides  -^-  2. 
Surface    of    cylinder    or    prism  =  areas    of    both    ends    plus 

(length  X  circumference). 


222  GASOLINE 


Contents  of  cylinder  or  prism  =  area  of  end  X  length. 

Surface  of  frustrum  of  cone  or  pyramid  =  sum  of  circum- 
ference of  both  ends  X  h  slant  height  plus  area  of  both 
ends. 

Contents  of  wedge  =  area  of  base  X  \  altitude. 


V. 

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228 


GASOLINE 


Comparative  Table  —  American  and  Metric 
Standards 


Approximate 

I  acre 40 

1  bushel 35. 

1  centimeter 39 

1  cubic  centimeter  ...      .  061 

1  cubic  foot 028 

1  cubic  inch    16. 

1  cubic  meter 35. 

1  cubic  meter 1.3 

1  cubic  yard 76 

1  foot 30. 

1  gallon 3.8 

1  grain 065 

1  gram 15 . 

1  hectar 2.2 

1  inch 25 . 

lkilo 2.2 

1  kilometer 62 

1  liter 91 

1  liter 1.1 

1  meter    3.3 

1  mile 1.6 

1  millimeter    039 

1  ounce  (avd.)    28. 

1  ounce  (troy)    31 . 

1  peck    8.8 

1  pint 47 

1  pound 45 

1  quart  (dry)    1.1 


Exact 

hectar 4047 

litres 35.24 

inch    3937 

cubic  inch 0610 

cubic  meter 0283 

cubic  centimeter  ....  16.39 

cubic  feet 35 .  31 

cubic  yards 1 .  308 

cubic  meter 7645 

centimeters 30.48 

liters 3  .  725 

gram 0648 

grains 15.  43 

acres 2.471 

millimeters    25 .  40 

pounds 2.205 

mile    6214 

quart  (dry) 9081 

quarts  (liquid)    1 .  057 

feet 3.281 

kilometers 1 .  609 

inch    0394 

grams 28.35 

grains 31.10 

liters 8 .  809 

liter 4732 

kilo 4536 

liters 1.101 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


229 


Approximate 


I  quart  (liquid) 
1  sq.  centimeter 
1  sq.  foot  . 
1  sq.  inch  . 
1  sq.  meter 
1  sq.  meter 
1  sq.  yard 
1  ton  (2,000  lbs.) 
1  ton  (2,240  lb 
1  ton  (metric) 
1  ton  (metric) 
1  yard    


95 
15 
093 
5 


S4 
91 


Exact 

liter    9464 

square  inch 1550 

square  meter 0929 

square  centimeters  ..    0.452 

square  yards 1 .  196 

square  feet     10.76 

square  meter 8361 

metric  ton 9072 

metric  ton 1 .017 

ton  (2,000  lbs.) 1.102 

ton  (2,240  lbs.) 9842 

meter 9144 


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GASOLINE 


231 


INTERNATIONAL 

Aluminum  .  .  .  .  Al  27 .  1 

Antimony    ...  .SI >  120.2 

Argon A  39.9 

Arsenic As  74 .  90 

Barium    Ba  137  .37 

Beryllium    Be  9.1 

Bismuth Bi  208.0 

Boron 15  11.0 

Bromine Br  79  .  92 

JCadmium    .  .  .  .  Cd  112.  49 

Caesium Cs  132  .  81 

Calcium Ca  40.09 

Cerium Ce  140 .  25 

Chlorine Cl  35.46 

Chromium  .  .  .  .  Cr  52.0 

Cobalt Co  58.97 

Columbium  .  .  .  Cb  93.5 

Copper Cu  63  .  57 

Dysprosium    .  .  Dy  162.5 

Erbium    Er  167.4 

Europium    ....Eu  152.0 

Fluorine F  19.0 

Gadolinium  .  .  .  Gd  157.3 

Gallium Ga  69.9 

Germanium  .  .  .Ge  72.5 

Glucinum    .  .  .  .  Gl  9.1 

Gold Au  197.2 

Helium He  4.0 

Hydrogen    H  1 .  008 

Indium In  114  .  8 


ATOMIC  WEIGHTS 

Molybdenum    .  .  Mo  96  0 

Neodymium    .  .  .  Nd  144.3 

Neon    Ne  20 .  0 

Nickel    Ni  58.68 

Nitrogen    N  14.01 

Osmium Os  190.9 

Oxygen O  16.00 

Palladium    Pd  106.7 

Phosphorus P  31.04 

Platinum Pt  195.2 

Potassium K  39.10 

Praseodymium .  .  Pr  140.6 

Radium Ra  226.4 

Rhodium Rh  102.9 

Rubidium    Rb  85.45 

Ruthenium    .  .  .  .  Ru  101.7 

Samarium    Sa  150.4 

Scandium Sc  44.1 

Selenium    Se  79.2 

Silicon    Si  28.3 

Silver Ag  107.88 

Sodium Na  23   00 

Strontium    Sr  87 .  63 

Sulphur    S  32.07 

Tantalum    Ta  181.0 

Tellerium Te  127.5 

Terbium Tb  159.2 

Thalium Tl  204 .  0 

Thorium    Th  232.42 

Thulium Tin  168.5 


232 


GASOLINE 


Iodine    I  126.92 

Iridium    Ir  193  . 1 

Iron    Fe  55.85 

Krypton    Kr  83 .  0 

Lanthanum  .  .  .La  139.0 

Lead Pb  207.10 

Lithium Li  6.94 

Lutecium Lu  174- .  0 

Magnesium  .  .  .  Mg  24.32 

Manganese    .  .  .  Mn  54 .  93 

Mercury    Hg  200.0 


Tin Sn  119.0 

Titanium Ti  48.1 

Tungsten W  184.0 

L'ranium    U  238 .  5 

Vanadium V  51 .  2 

Xenon    Xe  130.7 

Ytterbium Yb  172.0 

Yttrium Y  89 .  0 

Zinc    Zn  65 .  37 

Zirconium    Zr  90.6 


GASOLINE 2^ 

ELECTRICAL  FACTS 

Electricity,  according  to  Professor  Silvanus  P. 
Thompson,  is  the  name  given  to  an  invisible  agent 
known  to  us  only  by  the  effects  which  it  produces, 
and  in  many  ways  its  behavior  resembles  that  of 
an  incompressible  liquid,  or  that  of  a  highly  attenu- 
ated and  weightless  gas.  It  is  neither  matter  nor 
energy,  yet  it  apparently  can  be  associated  or  com- 
bined with  matter;  and  energy  can  be  spent  in 
moving  it.  Under  pressure  or  in  motion  it  repre- 
sents energy,  the  same  as  air  or  water.  Always 
constant  in  quantity,  it  can  never  be  created  nor 
destroyed.  There  is  no  flow  of  water  without  a 
difference  of  levels  and  no  manifestation  of  electric 
action  without  a  difference  of  electrical  pressure. 
Electricity  in  quantity  without  pressure  is  useless. 
In  mechanics,  a  pressure  is  necessary  to  produce  a 
current  of  air  or  water.  In  electricity,  an  electro- 
motive force  is  necessary  to  produce  a  current. 
Mechanical  phenomena  are  measured  in  pounds, 
feet  or  gallons.  Electrical  phenomena  are  measured 
in  units  of  their  own. 

The  unit  of  electrical  pressure  is  the  volt.  It  is 
analogous  to  steam  pressure.  It  is  the  abbreviation 
of  the  name  of  Volta,  in  honor  of  Count  Alessandro 
Volta,  born  at  Come,  February  18,  1745. 


234  GASOLINE 


The  unit  of  electrical  current  is  the  ampere.  It 
is  a  unit  of  the  rate  of  flow  or  stream.  It  is  in  honor 
of  Andre  Marie  Ampere,  the  founder  of  the  science 
of  electro-dynamics,  born  at  Lyons,  January  22, 
1775. 

The  unit  of  electrical  resistance  is  called  the 
ohm.  It  is  in  honor  of  George  Simon  Ohm,  born 
at  Erlangen,  Bavaria,  March  16,  1789.  He  was 
the  discoverer  of  the  fact  that  the  flow  of  electricity 
was  governed  by  fixed  laws.  By  Ohm's  law  we 
define  and  measure  electro-motive  force,  strength 
of  current  and  resistance. 

Ohm's  Law  connects  the  three  units,  volt,  ohm 
and  ampere.  The  current  in  any  circuit  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  electromotive  force,  and  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  resistance.  The  units 
are  so  chosen  that  when  there  is  one  ohm  resistance 
in  circuit  an  electromotive  force  of  one  volt  pre  duces 
a  current  of  one  ampere. 

Ohm's  law  is: 

Electromotive  force  in  volts 

Current  in  amperes  =  ~~     ;  ;       ; 

Resistance  in  ohms. 

Abbreviated  into:    C,  current;    E,  volts;    R,  resist- 
ance. 

(1)  C  =-^         (2)  E  =  CR.         (3)  R  =-^ 


GASOLINE 235 

(1)  A  dynamo  with  an  electromotive  force  of 

60  volts  will  send  through  a  resistance  of  5  ohms  a 

current  of  12  amperes. 

60 

C  =  =12  amperes. 

5 

(2)  A  dynamo  to  send  a  current  of  2  amperes 
through  a  resistance  of  25  ohms  must  have  an  electro- 
motive force  of  50  volts. 

E  =  2  X  25  =  50  volts. 

(3)  The  resistance  of  a  circuit  when  an  electro- 
motive of  800  volts  sends  a  current  of  10  amperes 
through  it  will  be  80  ohms. 

800 

R  =  =  80  ohms. 

10 

The  watt  is  the  unit  of  power,  and  is  equivalent 
to  one  ampere  multiplied  by  one  volt,  or  C  x  E  = 
watt.  A  kilowatt  is  equivalent  to  1,000  watts. 
The  mechanical  horsepower  is  equal  to  746  watts, 
or  for  approximate  computations  is  taken  at  750 
watts,  equivalent  to  f  of  a  kilowatt. 

A  dynamo  electric  machine  converts  energy  in 
the  form  of  dynamical  power  into  energy  in  the 
form  of  electric  currents,  by  the  operation  of  setting 
conductors  to  rotate  in  a  magnetic  field.  All  dy- 
namos are  based  upon  the  discovery  made  by  Fara- 


236  GASOLINE 


day,  in  1831,  that  electric  currents  are  made  manifest 
in  conductors  by  moving  them  in  a  magnetic  field. 

HORSEPOWER 

A  horsepower  is  the  energy  required  to  raise 
33,000  pounds  one  foot  in  a  minute. 

A  boiler  horsepower  is  equal  to  the  evaporation 
of  thirty  pounds  of  water  per  hour  from  a  feed-water 
temperature  of  100°  F.  into  steam  at  seventy -pound 
gauge  pressure. 

The  indicated  horsepower  of  an  engine  is  the 
power  developed  by  the  steam  on  the  piston  without 
any  deduction  for  friction. 

The  effective  horsepower  of  an  engine  is  the 
actual  and  available  horsepower  delivered  to  the 
belt  or  gearing,  and  is  always  less  than  the  indicated. 

The  horsepower  of  an  engine  is 
a  X  p  X  v 
33,000 

A — Area  of  piston  in  square  inches. 

P — Means  effective  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the 
piston  per  square  inch. 

V — Velocity  of  piston  per  minute. 

Rule  to  ascertain  horsepower  of  compound 
engine : 

Multiply  stroke  of  piston  in  feet  by  the  number 


GASOLINE  237 


of  revolutions  per  minute;  multiply  this  product 
by  the  boiler  pressure  by  gauge  and  take  the  square 
root  of  this  result,  which  multiply  by  the  square 
of  the  diameter  of  the  low  pressure  cylinder.  This 
product  divided  by  8,500  will  be  the  estimated 
horsepower  of  the  engine. 

An  indicated  horsepower  requires,  in  the  best 
condensing  engines,  about  one  and  three-quarters 
gallons  of  water  evaporated  per  hour. 

-  An  indicated  horsepower,  in  large  non-condens- 
ing engines,  requires  about  two  and  one-half  gallons 
of  water  evaporated  per  hour. 

x\n  indicated  horsepower,  in  small  non-condens- 
ing engines,  requires  from  three  to  ten  gallons  of 
water  evaporated  per  hour. 

Horsepower   of  Cylindrical   Flue   Boiler 

G  =  Fire  grate  surface  in  square  feet. 

H  =  Nominal  horsepower. 

S  =  Heating  surface  in  square  yards. 

, H2  =  S  H2  =  G 

A  SG  =  H  

V  G  S 

For  cylindrical  two-Sued  boilers  an  approximate 

rule  is: 

Length  X  diam. 

=  nominal  h.  p. 

6 


238 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


To  find  the  diameter  of  a  cylinder  of  an  engine 

of  a  required  nominal  horsepower: 

5500 

X  h.  p.  =  a. 

v 

To  find  the  weight  of    the  rim  of   the  flywheel 
for  an  engine: 

Nominal  h.  p.  X  2000 


The  square  of  the  velocity  of  the 
circumference   in  feet  per   second 


=  Weight  in  cwts. 


BOILER  AND  STEAM  FACTS 
Average  Evaporative  Power  of  Fuels 


lb.  of  pure  carbon  evaporates  12.4 

hydrogen  evaporates  53 . 

sulphur  3 .  44 

white  pine  wood  evaporates  7 .  65 

oak  charcoal  11.7 

bituminous  coal  12.62 

anthracite  coal  10.9 

coke  1 1 . 85 

oak  wood  6 .  47 


lbs.  of  water 


The  Relative  Volume  of  Steam  and  Water  is: 

At  15  lbs.  to  square  inch  1669  to  1 


30 


120 


881  "  1 
467  "  1 
249  "  1 


(i  A  SOLI  X  E  239 


FROM  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  NOMENCLA- 
TURE  DIVISION   OF   THE   STANDARDS 
COMMITTEE  OF  THE  SOCIETY  OF 
AUTOMOBILE  ENGINEERS 

For  several  years  there  has  been  an  insistent 
demand  for  standardization  of  names  of  car  parts. 
Uniformity  in  the  use  of  names  and  terminology 
would  save  many  of  the  delays  common  in  parts  re- 
placement service,  and  make  for  clearness  and 
brevity  in  the  use  of  automobile  terms  generally. 

The  nomenclature  contained  in  the  following  list 
was  developed  at  a  series  of  meetings  of  engineering 
and  service  representatives  of  several  of  the  leading 
automobile  manufacturers  of  x4merica.  It  has  been 
approved  in  detail  by  the  Nomenclature  Division  of 
the  Standards  Committee,  and  has  been  passed  upon 
in  turn  by  the  Standard  Committee,  the  Council, 
and  adopted  by  the  members  of  the  Society  of  iVuto- 
mobile  Engineers. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  in  the  list 
the  more  important  parts  throughout  the  whole  car, 
bolts,  studs  and  the  like  being  indicated  in  general 
terms.  Body  parts  have  not  been  included  gener- 
ally, nor  parts  of  some  units,  such  as  carburetor, 
which  vary  so  much  in  construction  as  to  make  any- 
thing like  uniform  nomenclature  very  difficult. 


240  .  G  A  S  O  L  I  N  E 


Definitions  of  different  types  of  construction 
have  been  included  for  several  units  in  order  to 
encourage  uniform  terminology  in  descriptions  ap- 
pearing in  the  trade  press  and  in  catalogues,  as  well 
as  in  the  technical  discussions  of  the  Society.  Defi- 
nitions of  different  types  of  bodies  are  also  included, 
because  it  is  thought  that  some  authority  should  take 
action  to  make  possible  the  use  of  names  which  will 
be  understood  generally,  rather  than  those  which  are 
meaningless  except  to  persons  conversant  with  the 
terminology  peculiar  to  individual  manufacturers. 
It  is  surprising  how  many  distinctly  different  types 
of  body  are  being  sold  under  the  name  "brougham," 
for  instance. 

A  scheme  of  classification  based  entirely  on  as- 
semblies is  impracticable  for  general  use,  on  account 
of  diverse  arrangement  of  elements  of  so-called  con- 
ventional cars.  The  classification  adopted  is  there- 
fore based  largely  on  function. 

In  most  cases  the  names  do  not  need  defining  to 
any  one  familiar  with  automobile  construction, 
especially  when  considered  in  connection  with  the 
other  names  in  the  same  group. 

For  spring  nomenclature  see  sheets  49,  49xa  and 
49b  in  the  S.A.E.  Handbook.  (Reprints  furnished 
upon  request.) 


GASOLINE                        241 

General  Divisions 

I. 

Cylinders 

II. 

Valves 

III. 

Cooling  System 

IV. 

Fuel  System 

V. 

Exhaust  System 

VI. 

Lubrication 

VII. 

Ignition 

VIII. 

Starting  and  Lighting  Equipment 

IX. 

Miscellaneous  Electrical  Equipment 

X. 

Clutch 

XI. 

Transmission 

XII. 

Rear  Axle 

XIII. 

Braking  System 

XIV. 

Front  Axle  and  Steering 

XV. 

Wheels 

XVI. 

Frame  and  Springs 

XVII. 

Hoods,  Fenders  and  Shields 

XVIII. 

Body  and  Top 

XIX. 

Accessories 

DIVISION   I CYLINDERS 

Group  1  —  Cylinders 

Group  2  —  Crankcase 

Group  3  —  Crankshaft 

Group  4  —  Starting-crank 

242  GASOLINE 


Group  5  —  Connecting-rods 
Group  6  —  Pistons 

DIVISION    II  VALVES 

Group  1  —  Camshaft 
Group  2  —  Valves 

DIVISION    III COOLING    SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Fan 
Group  2  —  Radiator 
Group  3  —  Pump 
Group  4  —  Pipes  and  Hose 

DIVISION   IV FUEL    SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Carburetor  and  Inlet  Pipe 
Group  2  —  Carburetor  Control 
Group  3  —  Carburetor  Air-heater 
Group  4  —  Fuel  Tank 
Group  5  —  Fuel  Pipes  and  Feed  System 

DIVISION   V EXHAUST    SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Exhaust  Manifold 
Group  2  —  Exhaust  Pipe  and  Muffler 

DIVISION    VI  —  LUBRICATION    SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Oil  Pan  or  Reservoir 

Group  2  —  Oil  Pumps 

Group  3  —  Oil  Pipes,  Strainers,  Gages 


G  A  SOLI  N  K 243 

DIVISION    VII  IGNITION 

Group  1  —  Spark  Plugs,  Cables  and  Switches 
Group  2  —  Ignition  Distributor 
Group  3  —  Magneto 
Group  4  —  Ignition  Control 

DIVISION  VIII STARTING  AND  LIGHTING  EQUIPMENT 

Group  1  —  Generator 
Group  2  —  Starting  Motor 
Group  3  —  Wiring- 
Group  4  —  Battery 

DIVISION    IX MISCELLANEOUS    ELECTRICAL 

EQUIPMENT 

Group  1  —  Lamps  and  Wiring 
Group  2  —  Switches  and  Instruments 
Group  3  —  Horn 
Group  4  —  Miscellaneous 

DIVISION  X CLUTCH 

Group  1  —  Clutching  Parts 

Cone  Clutch 

Disk  Clutch 

Plate  Clutch 
Group  2  —  Releasing  Parts 

DIVISION   XI TRANSMISSION 

Group  1  —  Transmission 


244  GASOLINE 


Group  2  —  Shifting  Mechanism 
Group  3  —  Control 
Group  4  —  Propeller  Shaft 

DIVISION   XII REAR   AXLE 

Group  1  —  Housing 

Group  2  —  Torque-arm  and  Radius-rod 

Group  3  —  Drive  Pinion 

Group  4  —  Differential 

Group  5  —  Axle  Shafts 

DIVISION   XIII  —  BRAKES 

Group  1  —  Outer  Brake 

Group  2  —  Inner  Brake 

Group  3  —  Pedal  (or  outer)  Brake  Control 

Group  4  —  Hand  (or  inner)  Brake  Control 

DIVISION   XIV FRONT  AXLE  AND   STEERING 

Group  1  —  Axle  Center 
Group  2  —  Steering  Knuckles 
Group  3  —  Steering  Rods 
Group  4  —  Steering  Gear 

DIVISION   XV WHEELS 

Group  1  —  Front  Wheels 
Group  2  —  Rear  Wheels 

DIVISION   XVI FRAME   AND    SPRINGS 

Group  1  —  Frame 


G  A  SOLIN  E 245 

Group  2  —  Frame  Brackets  and  Sockets 
Group  3  —  Front  Springs 
Group  4  —  Rear  Springs 

DIVISION  XVII HOOD,   FENDERS  AND  SHIELDS 

Group  1  —  Hood 

Group  2  —  Engine  Shield 

Group  3  —  Fenders  and  Running-boards 

Group  4  —  Windshield 

DIVISION   XVIII BODY 

Group  1  —  Floor-boards  and  Dash 
Group  2  —  Body 
Group  3  —  Upholstering 
Group  4  —  Top 

DIVISION   XIX ACCESSORIES 

Group  1  —  Speedometer 
Group  2  —  Tire  Pump 

General 

Where  terms  "front"  and  "rear"  are  used, 
"front"  should  always  be  toward  the  front  end  of 
the  car.  These  terms  are  sometimes  confused  in 
regard  to  parts  that  are  mounted  on  the  dash.  The 
front  side  of  the  dash  is  always! that  next  the  engine. 

Where  parts  are  numbered,  No.  1  should  be 
toward  the  front  of  the  car.     For  instance,  No.  1 


246  GASOLINE 


cylinder  is  the  one  nearest  the  radiator  (in  con- 
ventional construction) . 

"Right"  and  "left"  are  to  the  right-  and  left- 
hands  when  sitting  in  one  of  the  seats  of  the  car. 

Studs,  screws  and  bolts  shall  take  names  from 
parts  they  serve  to  hold  in  place,  although  they  are 
assembled  with  other  parts.  For  example,  the  cylin- 
der stud  is  permanently  screwed  into  crankcase  but 
holds  the  cylinder  in  place. 

The  name  "engine"  should  be  used  rather  than 
"motor"  to  avoid  confusion  with  electric  motors, 
and  to  secure  a  lower  freight  rate. 

DIVISION   I CYLINDERS 

Group  1  • —  Cylinders 
Cylinder 

L-head  cylinder  (valves  on  one  side  of  cylinder) 
T-head  cylinder   (valves  on  opposite  sides   of 

cylinder) 
I-head  cylinder  (valves  in  cylinder  head) 
F-head  cylinder  (one  valve  in  head,  other  on 
side  directly  operated) 
(Cast  in  block,  not  cast  en  bloc) 
(Cylinders  of  V-type  engines  should  be  numbered 
IR,  IL,  2R,  etc.) 
Inlet- valve  cap 


GASOLINE 247 

Exhaust- valve  cap 

Valve-cap  gasket 
Cylinder- head 

Cylinder-head  gasket 

Cylinder-head  plug 

Water-jacket  top  cover 

Water-jacket  top  cover  gasket 

Water-jacket  side  (or  front  or  rear)  cover 

Valve-spring  cover 

Valve-spring-cover  gasket 

Valve-spring-cover  stud 

Valve-stem  guide 

Priming-cup 
Group  2  —  Crankcase 

Crankcase 

Barrel-type  crankcase 

Split-type  crankcase  (split  horizontally,  at  or  near 
center  line  of  crankshaft) 

Crankcase  upper  half 

Crankcase  lower  half  (used  only  when  the  lower 
half  contains  bearings.  A  crankcase  of  either 
barrel  or  split  type,  in  which  all  the  bearings  are 
mounted  directly  on  the  part  to  which  the 
cylinders  are  attached,  is  called  a  "crankcase," 
the  terms  "upper  half"  and  "lower  half"  not 
being  used) 


248  GASOLINE 


Oil-pan  (used  for  lower  part  of  split-type  or  barrel- 
type  crankcase,  whether  this  serves  as  an  oil 
reservoir  or  not) 

Oil-pan  drain-cock   (or  -plug) 

Breather 

Oil-pan  gasket 

"Bushing"  instead  of  "bearing"  for  removable 
and  renewable  lining  used  in  a  plain  bearing 

Crankshaft  front  bearing  bushing  (upper  half  and 
lower  half) 

Crankshaft  front  bearing  cap 

Crankshaft  front  bushing  support  (sometimes 
used  in  barrel-type  crankcase) 

Crankshaft  rear  bearing  bushing 

Crankshaft  rear  bearing  shims  (other  shims  ac- 
cordingly) 

Crankshaft  center  bearing  bushing  (if  only  three 
bearings  or  if  all  except  end  bearings  are  alike) 

Crankshaft  second  bearing  bushing,  etc.  (if  more 
than  three  bearings,  for  example,  front  bearing, 
second  bearing,  third  bearing,  fourth  bearing, 
rear  bearing) 

Hand-hole  cover 

Hand-hole-cover  gasket 

Timing-gear  cover 

Timing-gear-cover  gasket 


GASOLINE  240 


Flywheel  housing 

Generator  bracket  (other  brackets  take  name  of 
part  supported) 
Group  3  —  Crankshaft 

Crankshaft 

Flywheel 

Crankshaft  timing-gear  (or  sprocket) 

Crankshaft  timing-gear  key 

Flywheel  starter-gear 

Crankshaft  starter-sprocket 

Flywheel  studs 

Clutch-spring  stud 

Crankshaft  starting  jaw  (or  pin) 
Group  4  —  Starting-crank 

Starting-crank 

Starting-crank  jaw 

Starting-crank  shaft 

Starting-crank  handle 

Starting-crank-handle  pin 
Group  5  —  Connecting-rods 

Connecting-rod 

Straight  connecting-rod  )  TT  , 

t?    i    j  x-  j    r  V~tyPe  engine 

Jb  orked  connecting-rod    ) 

Connecting-rod  cap 

Connecting-rod  bushing  (upper  half  and  lower  half) 

Connecting-rod  cap  stud  (or  bolt) 


250  GASOLINE 


Connecting-rod  cap  nut 
Connecting-rod  bearing  shims 
Connecting-rod  dipper 
Piston-pin  bushing 
Group  6  —  Pistons 
Piston 
Piston-pin 

Piston-pin  lock-screw  (in  connecting-rod  or  piston) 
Piston-ring 
Piston-ring  groove 

DIVISION   II VALVES 

Group  1  —  Camshaft 

Camshaft 

Eccentric  shaft  (Knight  engine) 

Camshaft  timing-gear 

Camshaft  timing-gear  key 

Camshaft  idler  gear 

Camshaft  oil-pump  gear 

Camshaft  ignition-distributor  gear 

Exhaust  cam 

Inlet  cam 

Oil-pump  eccentric  (or  cam) 
Group  2  —  Valves 

Valves  should  be  numbered  1  Ex,  1  In,  2  Ex,  2  In, 
etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  the  cylinder. 


GASOLINE 251 

On  V-type  engines  the  numbers   should  he   1 

REx,  1  LEx,  etc. 
Poppet  valve 
Inlet  valve 
Exhaust  valve 
Valve-spring 
Valve- spring  retainer 
Valve-spring  retainer  lock 
Valve-lifter 
-  Valve-lifter  guide 
Valve-lifter-guide  clamp 
Valve-lifter  roller 
Valve-lifter-roller  pin 
Valve  adjusting  screw 
Valve  adjusting  screw  nut 
Valve-rocker  (either  at  cam  or  at  overhead  valve; 

if  both,  upper  and  lower) 
Valve  push-rod  (intermediate  between  lifter  and 

valve  in  I-head  engine) 

DIVISION   III COOLING   SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Fan 
Fan 

Stationary  fan  support 
Adjustable  fan  support 
Fan  hub 


252  GASOLINE 

Fan-blades 
Fan  pulley 
Fan-belt 

Fan  driving  pulley 
Group  2  —  Radiator 
Radiator  core 
Radiator  shell 
Radiator  upper  tank 
Radiator  right  side 
Radiator  left  side 
Radiator  lower  tank 
Radiator  filler-cap 
Radiator  strainer 
Radiator  drain-cock 
Group  3  —  Pump 
Water-pump 
Water-pump  impeller 
Water-pump-impeller  key 
Water-pump   body    (in   case   of   doubt,   body   is 

member  mounted  on  engine) 
Water-pump  cover 
Water-pump  shaft 
Water-pump  gland  (part  in  contact  with  packing, 

whether  threaded  or  not) 
Water-pump-gland  nut   (or  screw,  or  other  part 

used  to  compress*  gland) 
Water-pump  shaft  gear 


GASOLINE  253 


Group  4  —  Pipes  and  Hose 
Engine  water  outlet 
Engine  water  inlet 
Radiator  hose  (upper  and  lower) 
Radiator  water  fitting  (upper  and  lower) 
Water-pump  outlet  pipe 

DIVISION   IV FUEL   SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Carburetor  and  Inlet  Pipe 

Carburetor 

Inlet  manifold  (more  than  one  connection  to 
cylinder) 

Inlet  pipe  (only  one  connection  to  cylinder) 

Inlet  manifold  or  pipe  gaskets  (at  cylinders) 

Carburetor  gasket 
Group  2  —  Carburetor  Control 

(Throttle  control  rods  will  take  names  from  parts 
they  connect,  shafts  by  location  or  arrangement, 
and  brackets  by  parts  they  support) 

Accelerator  pedal 

Accelerator  pedal  bracket 

Accelerator  pedal  pin 

Accelerator  pedal  rod 

Accelerator  pedal  rod-end  pin 

Carburetor  mixture  hand-regulator 

Carburetor  choke 


254  GASOLINE 


Group  3  —  Carburetor  Air-heater 

Carburetor  air-heater 

Carburetor  hot-air  pipe 
Group  4  —  Fuel  Tank 

Fuel  tank 

Fuel  reserve  tank 

Fuel  gage 

Fuel  gage  float 

Fuel  gage  glass 

Fuel  tank  outlet  strainer 

Fuel  tank  outlet  (flange,  fitting,  etc.) 

Fuel  tank  pressure  flange  (or  fitting) 
Group  5  —  Fuel  Pipes  and  Feed  Systems 

Main  fuel  valve 

Reserve  fuel  valve 

Fuel  pipe,  main  tank  to  auxiliary  tank  (or  names  of 
other  parts  connected) 

Fuel  pressure-pump  (power  pump) 

Fuel  hand -pump 

Fuel  press  ure-gage  pipe 

Fuel  pressure-gage  tee 

Fuel  pressure  pipe  to  tank 

Fuel  pressure-pump  pipe 

Fuel  hand-pump  pipe 

Fuel  hand-pump  tee 

Fuel  pressure  gage 


GASOLINE  255 


DIVISION   V EXHAUST    SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Exhaust  Manifold 

Exhaust  manifold 

Exhaust  manifold  gasket 
Group  2  —  Exhaust  Pipe  and  Muffler 

Muffler 

Exhaust  pipe  (extends  from  exhaust  manifold  to 
muffler.  If  in  more  than  one  part,  name  sec- 
tions front  and  rear.  For  V-type  engines  with 
two  pipes,  name  right  and  left) 

Muffler  outlet  pipe 

DIVISION   VI LUBRICATION   SYSTEM 

Group  1  —  Oil-pan  or  Reservoir 

Oil -pan 

Oil  tank  (when  separate) 

Oil-filler  strainer 

Oil -filler  cap 
Group  2  —  Oil-pump 

Oil-pump 

Oil-pump  body  (any  type  of  pump) 

Oil-pump  plunger 

Oil-pump-plunger  spring 

Oil-pump  inlet  valve 

Oil -pump  outlet  valve 

Oil-pump  shaft 


256  GASOLINE 


Oil-pump  shaft  gear  (outside  the  pump) 
Oil-pumping  shaft  gear  (inside  the  pump) 
Oil-pumping  follower  gear 
Oil-pump  cover 
Group  3  —  Oil  Pipes,  Strainers,  Gages 
.  (Oil  pipes  should  be  named  from  the  parts  they 
connect,  as  "Oil-pump  to  pressure-gage  pipe") 
Circulating-oil  strainer 
Oil  strainer  cap 
Sight  feed 
Sight-feed  glass 
OiJ  level-gage 
Oil  level-gage  float 
Oil  level-gage  glass 
Oil  pressure-gage 

DIVISION   VII IGNITION 

Group  1  —  Spark-plugs,  Cables  and  Switches 

Spark-plugs 

Spark-pl  ug  cables  (numbered  according  to  cylinders) 

Coil  high-tension  cable 

(Low-tension  cables  should  be  named  from  the 
parts  they  connect,  as:  "Storage  battery  to 
ignition  switch  cable."  (In  case  of  more  than 
one  conductor  the  cable  should  be  designated  as 
double,  triple,  etc.) 


GASOLINE  257 


Ignition  coil 

Ignition  switch 

Dry  cell  (two  or  more  cells  make  a  dry  battery) 

Group  2  —  Ignition  Distributor 
Ignition-distributor  breaker 
Ignition-distributor  breaker-arm 
Ignition-distributor  breaker-arm  point 
Ignition-distributor  fixed  breaker-point 
Ignition-distributor  brush 
Ignition-distributor  shaft 
Ignition-distributor  shaft  gear 

Group  3  —  Magneto 
Magneto 

Magneto  distributor 
Magneto  breaker-box 
Magneto  breaker-arm 
Magneto  fixed  breaker-point 
Magneto  breaker-arm  point 
Magneto  distributor  brush 
Magneto-collector-ring  brush 
Magneto  coupling,  pump  end 
Magneto  coupling,  center  member 
Magneto  coupling,  magneto  end 

Group  4  —  Ignition  Control 

Spark  control  rod  (name  parts  connected) 


258  GASOLINE 


(Other  control  parts  named  as  explained  under 
throttle  control) 

DIVISION  VIII STARTING  AND  LIGHTING  EQUIPMENT 

General 

A  one-unit  system  uses  a  starter-generator. 

A  two-unit  system  uses  a  generator  and  a  starting 
motor 

A  combined  unit  system  uses  a  duplex  starter- 
generator. 

Group  1  —  Generator 
Generator 
Generator  brush 
Generator  brush-holder 
Generator  gear 
Generator  shaft 

Generator  coupling  (members  as  indicated  under 
magneto  coupling) 

Group  2  —  Starting  Motor 
Starting  motor 
Starting-motor  brush 
Starting-motor  brush-holder 
Starting-motor  pinion 
Starting-motor  intermediate  gear 
Starting-motor  intermediate-gear  shaft 


GASOLINE  959 


Starting-motor  intermediate  pinion 

Overrunning  clutch 
Group  3  —  Wiring 

(Cables  and  conduits  should  be  named  from  parts 
they  connect) 

Starting  switch 

Starting-switch  pedal  (or  lever) 
Group  4  —  Battery 

Storage  battery 

Filler  cap 

Terminal  post 

Connector  strip 

DIVISION     IX MISCELLANEOUS     ELECTRICAL 

EQUIPMENT 

Group  1  — ■  Lamps  and  Wiring 
Head  lamp 
Tail  lamp 
Side  lamp 
Instrument  lamp 
Tonneau  lamp 
Dome  lamp 
Pillar  lamp 
Inspection  lamp 
Inspection-lamp  cord 
Inspection-lamp  plug 


260  GASOLINE 


Inspection-lamp  socket 

Head-lamp  socket 

Head-lamp  support 

Head-lamp  support  tie  rod 

Tail-lamp  support 

(Cables  and  conduits  should  be  named  from  the 
parts  they  connect) 

Junction  box  (wires  not  attached  to  box) 

Junction-box  screw 

Junction-box  cover 

Fuse  box 

Fuse-box  cover 

Fuse  block 

Fuse  clip 

Fuse  (designated  by  name  of  part  fed  by  circuit) 

Junction  panel 
Group  2 —  Switches  and  Instruments 

Lighting  switch 

Ammeter 

Voltmeter 

Voltammeter 

Charging  indicator 

Reverse  current  cutout 

Current  regulator 
Group  3 — Horn 

(No  names  have  been  selected  for  horn  parts) 


GASOLINE 261 

Group  4  —  Miscellaneous 

(Will  include  any  additional  electrical  equipment 
such  as  electrical  gearshift) 

DIVISION   X CLUTCH 

General 
Plate  clutch  (one  plate  clamped  between  two  others) 
Disk  clutch  (more  than  three  disks) 
Dry  disk  clutch 
Lubricated  disk  clutch 
Cone  clutch  (leather  faced,  asbestos  faced) 
Expanding  clutch 
Group  1  —  Clutching  Parts 

Cone  Clutch 
Clutch  cone 
CJutch  facing 
Clutch-facing  spring 
Clutch-facing-spring  plunger 
Clutch  spring 
Clutch  thrust-bearing 
Clutch  cone  hub 
Clutch  cone  bushing 
Clutch-spring  spider  (for  cone  clutch  with  multiple 

springs) 
Clutch-spring  stud 


262  GASOLINE 


Clutch-spring  retainer 

Clutch-spring  nut 

Clutch  spindle 

Clutch  shaft  (not  attached  to  crankshaft) 

Clutch  shaft  bearing  (not  in  transmission  case) 

Disk  Clutch 
Clutch  case  (rotating  member) 
Clutch  housing  (non-rotating  member) 
Clutch  cover 
Clutch  housing  cover 
Clutch  driving  disk 
Clutch  driven  disk 
Clutch  driving  disk  stud 
Clutch  pressure  plate  (front  and  rear,"  if  two  — 

used  on  both  disk  and  plate  clutches) 
Clutch    driven    spider    (or    drum  —  driving    and 

driven  if  two) 
Clutch  cork-inserts 
(Facing,  spring,  thrust-bearing,  etc.,  as  under  cone 

clutch) 

Plate  Clutch 
Clutch  driven  plate 
Clutch  driving  plate 
Clutch  pressure  levers 
(Other  parts  as  under  cone  and  disk  clutches') 


g  a  s  o  l  i  n  e |aa 

Group  2  —  Releasing  Parts 
Clutch  release  sleeve 

Clutch  release  shoe  or  clutch  release  bearing  housing 
Clutch  release  bearing 
Clutch  release  fork 
Clutch  release  fork  shaft 
Clutch  pedal  shaft 
Clutch  pedal  adjusting  link 
Clutch  release  fork  lever 
Clutch  pedal 
Clutch  pedal  pad 
Clutch  brake 
Clutch  brake  facing 

DIVISION   XI TRANSMISSION 

Group  1  —  Transmission 

Transmission  case  (upper  half  and  lower  half,  if 

bearings  seat  in  both) 
Transmission  case  cover 
Clutch  gear 

Clutch  gear  bearing  (front  and  rear  if  two) 
Clutch  gear  bearing  retainer 
Countershaft 

Countershaft  front  bearing  (if  ball  or  roller) 
Countershaft  front  bearing  bushing  (if  plain  bear- 
ing) 


264  GASOLINE 


Countershaft  front  bearing  retainer 

Countershaft  rear  bearing  retainer 

Countershaft  drive  gear 

Countershaft  second-speed  gear 

Countershaft  low-speed  gear 

Countershaft  reverse  gear 

Reverse  idler  gear 

Reverse  idler  gear  shaft 

Reverse  idler  gear  bushing 

Transmission  shaft 

Transmission  shaft  pilot  bearing 

Transmission  shaft  pilot  bearing  bushing  (if  plain) 

Transmission  shaft  rear  bearing 

Transmission  shaft  rear  bearing  retainer 

Second  and  high  sliding  gear 

Low  and  reverse  sliding  gear 
Group  2  —  Shifting  Mechanism 

High-gear  shift  fork 

Low-gear  shift  fork 

Reverse  shift  fork  (if  three  are  used) 

High-gear  shift  bar 

Low-gear  shift  bar 

Reverse  shift  bar 
Group  3  —  Control 

Gearshift  bar  selector 

Gearshift  lever  shaft' 


GASOLINE  265 


Low  gearshift  connecting-rod 

High  gearshift  connecting-rod 

Gearshift  hand  lever  ("hand"  may  be  omitted) 

Gearshift  hand  lever  bracket  ("hand"  may  be 
omitted) 

Gearshift  housing  (center  control) 

Gearshift  gate 
Group  4  —  Propeller-shaft 

Propeller-shaft 

Propeller-shaft  front  universal-joint  (assembly  — 
"propeller-shaft"  may  be  omitted) 

Propeller-shaft  rear  ■  universal- joint  (assembly  — 
"propeller-shaft"  may  be  omitted) 

Propeller-shaft  front  bearing  (with  enclosed  shaft) 

Transmission  shaft  universal-joint  flange  (sub- 
stitute name  of  any  other  shaft  on  which  flange 
is  mounted) 

Universal- joint  flange  yoke 

Universal-joint  slip  yoke 

Universal- joint  plain  yoke 

Universal-joint  center  cross  (ring  or  block) 

Universal- joint  bearing  bushing 

Universal-joint  pin  (may  be  designated  as  long 
and  short,  straight  and  shoulder,  etc.) 

Universal-joint  inner  casing 

Universal-joint  outer  casing 


266  GASOLINE 


Universal- joint  casing  packing 

Universal-joint  casing  nut 

Universal-joint  trunnion  (for  trunnion  type  joint) 

Universal-joint  trunnion  block 

DIVISION   XII REAR   AXLE 

General  Types 

Dead  Axle  —  An  axle  carrying  road  wheels  with 
no  provision  in  the  axle  itself  for  driving  them. 

Live  Axle  —  General  name  for  type  of  axle  with 
concentric  driving  shaft. 

Plain  Live  Axle  —  Has  shafts  supported  directly 
in  bearings  at  center  and  at  ends,  carrying  differen- 
tial and  road  wheels. 

(The  plain  live  axle  is  practically  extinct.) 

Semi-Floating  Axle  — -  Has  differential  carried  on 
separate  bearings,  the  inner  ends  of  the  shafts  being 
carried  by  the  differential  side  gears,  and  the  outer 
ends  supported  in  bearings. 

The  semi-floating  axle  shaft  carries  torsion, 
bending  moment,  and  shear.  It  also  carries  tension 
and  compression  if  the  wheel  bearings  do  not  take 
thrust,  and  compression  if  they  take  thrust  in  only 
one  direction. 

Three-Quarter  Floating  Axle  —  Inner  ends  of 
shafts  carried  as  in  semi-floating  axle.     Outer  ends 


G  A  S  O  L  I  N  K  287 


supported  by  wheels,  which  depend  on  shafts  For 
alignment.  Only  one  bearing  is  used  in  each  wheel 
hub. 

The  three-quarter  floating  axle  shaft  carries  tor- 
sion and  the  bending  moment  imposed  by  the  wheel 
on  corners  and  uneven  road  surfaces.  It  also  carries 
tension  and  compression  if  the  wheel  bearings  are 
not  arranged  to  take  thrust. 

Full-Floating  Axle  —  Same  as  three-quarter  float- 
ing axle,  except  that  each  wheel  has  two  bearings 
and  does  not  depend  on  shaft  for  alignment.  The 
wheel  may  be  driven  by  a  flange  or  a  jaw  clutch. 

The  full-floating  axle  shaft  is  relieved  from  all 
strains  except  torsion,  and  in  one  possible  construc- 
tion, tension  and  compression. 

Types  of  Axle  Drive 

The  different  types  of  live  axle  can  be  driven  by 
Bevel  Gear,  Spiral  Bevel  Gear,  Worm,  Double-reduction 
Gear  or  Single  Chain. 

In  other  constructions,  the  rear  wheels  are  driven 
by  Double  Chains,  Internal  Gears,  or  Jointed  Cross- 
shaft. 

Group  1 — Housing 

Rear-axle  housing  (if  one  piece) 
Right  and  left  halves  (if  two  pieces) 


268  GASOLINE 


Bevel  (or  worm)  gear  housing 

Right  rear-axle  tube  ^>  (if  three  pieces) 

Left  rear-axle  tube 

Rear-axle-housing  cover 

Differential  carrier  (bolted  to  housing) 

Rear-axle  spring  seat 

Axle  brake-shaft  bracket  (right  and  left) 

Wheel   brake-support,    right    and   left    ("wheel" 

may  be  omitted) 
Wheel  brake-shield  ("wheel"  may  be  omitted) 

Group  2  —  Torque-arm  and  Radius-rod 
Radius-rods 

Group  3  —  Drive  Pinion 

Axle  drive  bevel  pinion  (or  worm) 

Axle  drive  pinion  (or  worm)  shaft 

Axle  drive  pinion  front  bearing 

Axle  drive  pinion  rear  bearing 

Axle  drive  pinion  thrust-bearing 

Axle  drive  pinion  front  bearing  adjuster 

Axle  drive  pinion  front  bearing  adjuster  lock 

Axle  drive  pinion  rear  bearing  adjuster 

Axle  drive  pinion  rear  bearing  adjuster  lock 

Axle   drive   pinion    adjusting   sleeve    (containing 

both  bearings) 
Axle  drive  pinion  (or  worm)  carrier 


GASOLINE  269 


Group  4  —  Differential 

Axle  drive  bevel  (or  worm)  gear 

Differential 

Differential  case,  right 

Differential  case,  left 

Differential  side  gear 

Differential    spider    pinion     ("spider"    may    be 
omitted) 

Differential  spider  (or  pinion  shaft) 

Differential  bearing 

Differential  thrust-bearing 

Differential  bearing  adjuster 

Differential  bearing  adjuster  lock 
Group  5  —  Axle  Shafts 

Axle  shaft  (right  and  left) 

Axle  shaft  wheel-flange  (or  clutch) 

DIVISION   XIII BRAKES 

General 
In  the  following  list  of  brake  parts  the  terms 
"outer"  and  "inner"  are  used,  being  applicable  to 
any  case  of  two  sets  of  brakes  on  the  rear  wheels. 
Where  the  brakes  are  external  and  internal  these 
terms  may  be  substituted  for  "outer"  and  "inner." 
Where  one  brake  is  located  at  the  wheels  and  the 
other  at  the  transmission  the  terms  "wheel  brake" 


270  GASOLINE 


and  "transmission  brake"  should  be  substituted. 
With  other  concentric  or  side-by-side  brakes  the 
terms  "outer"  and  "inner"  should  be  retained, 
"outer"  indicating  in  the  latter  case  the  ones  nearer 
the  wheels. 

The  list  is  made  up  for  external  contracting  and 
internal  expanding  brakes.  If  both  brakes  are  of 
one  type  the  necessary  changes  will  be  obvious. 
The  designation  of  brake  parts  on  the  rear  axle  as 
foot-brake  or  hand-brake  parts,  or  by  equivalent 
terms,  is  too  remote  to  be  clear,  especially  in  the  case 
of  stock  axles  whose  brakes  may  be  connected  either 
way  according  to  chassis  design.  Nearly  the  same 
condition  prevails  in  regard  to  designating  parts  on 
the  chassis  according  to  whether  they  are  connected 
to  the  inner  or  outer  brakes  at  the  axle. 

The  terms  "service  brake"  and  "emergency 
brake"  should  not  be  used.  Better  designations  are 
"foot  brake"  and  "hand  brake";  or  if  both  brakes 
foot-operated,  "right-foot  brake"  and  "left -foot 
brake." 

Group  1  —  Outer  Brake 
Outer  brake  band 
Outer  brake  band  lining 
Outer  brake  band  adjusting  nut  (yoke,  etc.) 


GASOLINE  271 


Outer  brake  hand  lever 
Outer  brake  lever  shaft 
Outer  brake  shaft  inner  end  lever 
Outer  brake  shaft  outer  end  lever 
Group  2  —  Inner  Brake 
Inner  brake  shoe  (or  band) 
Inner  brake  shoe  (or  band)  lining 
Inner  brake  toggle  (link,  etc.) 
Inner  brake  toggle  lever 
Inner  brake  toggle  shaft 
Inner  brake  cam 
Inner  brake  camshaft 

Inner  brake  camshaft  (or  toggle  shaft)  lever 
Group  3  —  Pedal  (or  outer)  Brake  Control 
Outer  brake  rod 
Outer  brake  rod  yoke 
Outer  brake  intermediate  shaft  (or  tube)  —  right 

and  left 
Outer  brake  intermediate  shaft  (or  tube)  —  right 

lever 
Outer  brake  intermediate  shaft   (or  tube)  —  left 

lever 
Outer  brake  intermediate  shaft  (or  tube  )  center 

lever 
Outer  brake  right  equalizer  lever 
Outer  brake  left  equalizer  lever 


272  GASOLINE 


Outer  brake  equalizer 
Brake  pedal 
Brake  pedal  rod 
Brake  pedal  rod  yoke 
Brake  pedal  pad 
Brake  pedal  shaft 
Group  4  —  Hand  (or  inner)  Brake  Control 
Inner  brake  rod 
Inner  brake  rod  yoke 
Inner  brake  intermediate  shaft  (or  tube)  —  right 

and  left 
Inner  brake  intermediate  shaft  (or  tube)  —  right 

lever 
Inner  brake  intermediate  shaft   (or  tube)  —  left 

lever 
Inner  brake  intermediate  shaft  (or  tube)  —  center 

lever 
Inner  brake  right  equalizer  lever 
Inner  brake  left  equalizer  lever 
Inner  brake  equalizer 
Brake  hand  lever  rod 
Brake  hand  lever  rod  yoke 
Brake  hand  lever 
Brake  lever  segment  (or  sector) 
Brake  lever  pawl 
Brake  pawl  spring 


G  A  S  0  L  I  N  E  273 


Brake  pawl  button 
Brake  pawl  finger  lever 
Brake  pawl  rod 

DIVISION    XIV FRONT    AXLE    AND    STEERING 

Group  1  —  Axle  Center 
Front  axle  center 
Front  spring  seats 
Front  axle  bushing 

Group  2  —  Steering-knuckles 
Right  steering-knuckle 
Left  steering-knuckle 

Steering-knuckle  bushing  (upper  and  lower) 
Steering-knuckle  pivot 
Steering-knuckle-pivot  nut 
Steering-knuckle  thru  s t-bearing 
Right  steering-knuckle  arm 
Left  steering-knuckle  arm 
Steering-knuckle  gear  rod  arm 

Group  3  —  Steering-rods 
Steering-knuckle  tie-rod 
Steering-knuckle  tie-rod  end 
Steering-knuckle  tie-rod  clamp  bolt 
Steering-knuckle  tie-rod  pin 
Steering-gear  connecting-rod 


274  GASOLINE 


Group  4  —  Steering-gear 
Steering-gear  case 
Steering-gear-case  cover 
Steering-gear  bracket 
Steering-gear  arm 
Steering-arm  shaft  (if  separate  from  sector  or  other 

operating    member) 
Steering-wheel  rim 
Steering-wheel  spider 
Steering-wheel  tube  (or  shaft) 
Spark  and  throttle  sector 
Spark  and  throttle  sector  tube 
Spark  hand  lever 
Spark  hand-lever  tube  (or  rod) 
Throttle  hand  lever 
Throttle  hand-lever  tube  (or  rod) 
Steering-column  tube  (stationary) 
Steering-column  cowl  (or  dash  or  floor)  bracket 

The  various  bushings  in  the  steering  column  take 
names  from  parts  to  which  they  are  permanently 
fitted,  being  further  distinguished  as  upper  and 
lower,  inner  and  outer,  if  necessary.  Bushings  in 
the  steering-gear  case  take  names  from  the  worm  and 
sector  or  other  main  operating  parts  which  they 
support,   as:      Steering-gear  worm   upper  bushing; 


GASOLINE 275 

although  the  steering-wheel  tube  may  be  the  mem- 
ber which  turns  inside  the  bushing. 

Steering  worm  )  ,  . 

~,  ,  J  (worm  and  sector 

bteermg-worm  sector  (or  gear;  >  '  , 

Steering-worm  shaft  ) 

DIVISION   XV WHEELS 

Group  1  —  Front  wheels 
Front  wheel  felloe 
Front  wheel  felloe  band 
Front  wheel  rim 
Rim  bolts 
Rim  clamps 
Front  wheel  hub 
Front  wheel  hub-flanges 
Front  wheel  hub -cap 
Front  wheel  outer  bearing 
Front  wheel  outer  bearing  inner  race 
Front  wheel  outer  bearing  outer  race 
Front  wheel  outer  bearing  balls 
Front  wheel  outer  bearing  ball  retainer 
Front  wheel  outer  bearing  rollers 
Front  wheel  outer  bearing  roller  cage 
Front  wheel  inner  bearing  (parts  same  as  outer 

bearing) 
Front  wheel  bearing  spacer 


276  GASOLINE 


Front  wheel  bearing  nut 
Front  wheel  bearing  lock  nut 
'  Front  wheel  bearing  locking  washer 
Group  2  —  Rear  Wheels 
Rear  wheel  hub 
Rear  wheel  hub-flange 
Rear  wheel  hub-cap 
Rear  wheel  outer  bearing 
Rear  wheel  inner  bearing 
Wheel  brake-drum 
(Other  parts  named  like  front  wheel  parts) 

DIVISION   XVI FRAME   AND    SPRINGS 

Group  1  —  Frame 

Frame  side  member  (right  and  left) 

Front  cross  member 

Rear  cross  member 

Center  cross  member 

(As  above  if  only  three  cross  members,  as  below  if 

more  than  three) 
First  cross  member 
Second  cross  member,  etc. 
Sub-frame  side  member  (right  and  left) 
Sub-frame  cross  member  (front  and  rear) 
Right  rear  gusset  (upper  and  lower) 
(Gussets  at  other  cross  members  named  according 

to  member) 


GASOLINE  277 


Group  2  —  Frame  Brackets  and  Sockets 

Front  spring  front  bracket  (right  and  left) 

Front  spring  rear  bracket  (right  and  left) 

Rear  spring  front  bracket  (right  and  left) 

Rear  spring  rear  bracket  (right  and  left) 

Running-board  bracket  (front,  right,  etc.,  if  not 
duplicates) 

Running-board  bracket  brace 

Engine  front  support  bracket 

Engine  rear  support  bracket 

Torque-arm  bracket 

Radius-rod  bracket 
Group  3  —  Front  Springs 

Front  spring  (right  and  left) 

Front  spring  shackle 

Front  spring  shackle-bolt  (upper  and  lower) 

Front  spring  front  bolt 

Front  spring  rebound-clip 

Front  spring  seat 

Front  spring  seat  pad 

Front  spring  clip 

Front  spring  clip  plate 

Front  spring  center-bolt 
Group  4  —  Rear  Springs 

Rear  springs  (upper .  and   lower   for   elliptic    and 
three-quarter  elliptic) 


GASOLINE 


Rear  spring  pivot  bolt  (or  pin)    /  (for  half-elliptic 

Rear  spring  pivot  seat  J  cantilever  spring) 

Rear  spring  double  shackle  | 

Rear  side  spring  -  (for  platform  spring) 

Cross  spring  ) 

(Other  parts  as  for  front  springs) 

DIVISION    XVII HOOD,    FENDERS    AND    SHIELDS 

Group  1  —  Hood 

Hood 

Hood  sill 

Hood  handle 

Hood  fastener 

Hood  fastener  bracket  (spring,  lever,  etc.) 
Group  2  —  Engine  Shield 

Engine  shield 

Engine  shield  fastener 

Engine  shield  bracket  (spring,  etc.) 
Group  3  —  Fenders  and  Running-boards 

Running-board  (right  and  left) 

Running-board  linoleum  covering 

Running-board  outside  binding 

Running-board  inside  binding 

Running-board  front  binding 

Running-board  rear  binding 

Running-board  shield  (right  and  left) 


GASOLINE 279 

Right  front  fender 
Left  front  fender 
Right  rear  fender 
Left  rear  fender 
Fender  support  socket 
Right  front  fender  front  support 
Right  front  fender  rear  support 
(Other  fender  supports  accordingly) 
Group  4  —  Windshield 

(Names  for  windshield  parts  have  not  been  selected) 

DIVISION   XVIII BODY 

Types  of  Bodies 

Roadster  —  An  open  car  seating  two  or  three. 
It  may  have  additional  seats  on  running-boards  or 
in  rear  deck. 

Coupelet —  Seats  two  or  three.  It  has  a  folding 
top  and  full-height  doors  with  disappearing  panels  of 
glass . 

Coupe — An  inside  operated,  enclosed  car  seat- 
ing two  or  three.  A  fourth  seat  facing  backward  is 
sometimes  added. 

Convertible  Coupe  —  A  roadster  provided  with  a 
detachable  coupe  top. 

Clover  Leaf —  An  open  car  seating  three  or  four. 
The  rear  seat  is  close  to  the  divided  front  seat  and  en- 
trance is  only  through  doors  in  front  of  the  front  seat, 


280  GASOLINE 


Touring  Car — An  open  car  seating  four  or 
more  with  direct  entrance  to  tonneau. 

Salon  Touring  Car  —  A  touring  car  with  passage 
between  front  seats,  with  or  without  separate  en- 
trance to  front   seats. 

Convertible  Touring  Car — A  touring  car  with 
folding  top  and  disappearing  or  removable  glass 
sides. 

Sedan  —  A  closed  car  seating  four  or  more,  all  in 
one  compartment. 

Convertible  Sedan  —  A  salon  touring  car  pro- 
vided with  a  detachable  sedan  top. 

Open  Sedan — -A  sedan  so  constructed  that  the 
sides  can  be  removed  or  stowed  so  as  to  leave  the 
space  entirely  clear  from  the  glass  front  to  the  back. 

Limousine  —  A  closed  car  seating  three  to  five 
inside,  with  driver's  seat  outside,  covered  with  a  roof. 

Open  Limousine  —  A  touring  car  with  permanent 
standing  top  and  disappearing  or  removable  glass 
sides. 

Berline  —  A  limousine  having  the  driver' s  seat 
entirely   inclosed. 

Brougham  —  A  limousine  with  no  roof  over  the 
driver's  seat. 

Landaulet — A  closed  car  with  folding  top,  seats 
for  three  or  more  inside,  and  driver's  seat  outside. 


GASOLINE 281 

Group  1  —  Floor-boards  and  Dash 

Floor-boards  (horizontal) 

Toe-boards  (sloping) 

Heel-boards  (under  seats) 

Dash  (separates  engine  compartment  from  driver's 
compartment) 

Instrument  board 
Group  2  —  Body* 
Group  3  —  Upholstering* 
Group  4  —  Top* 

DIVISION   XIX ACCESSORIES 


Group  1  —  Speedometer* 
Group  2  — ■  Tire-pump 
Tire-pump 

Tire-pump  driving  gear 
Tire-pump  shaft  gear 
Tire-pump  idler  gear 


*Names    for    parts   in    these     groups     have     not     been 
selected. 


{' 

Date  Due 

1  A 

APR   1°  10 

QS 

I 

f 

~x 


BOSTON  COLLEGE 


3  9031   01449603  8 


BOSTON   COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY   HEIGHTS 
CHESTNUT   HILL,  MASS. 


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